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Jauhar

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The Rajput ceremony of Jauhar, 1567, as depicted by Ambrose Dudley inHutchinsons History of the Nations,c.1910

Jauhar,sometimes spelledJowharorJuhar,[1][2]was a Hindu Rajput practice of massself-immolationby females, both adults and children,[3]in theIndian subcontinentto avoid capture, enslavement,[4]and rape by Islamic invaders[5]when facing certain defeat during a war.[6][7][8]Some reports ofjauharmention women committing self-immolation along with their children.[9][10]This practice was historically observed in the northwest regions of India, with most famous jauhars in recorded history occurring during wars between HinduRajputkingdoms inRajasthanand the opposing Muslim armies.[11][12][13][7]Jauhar was only performed during war, usually when there was no chance of victory. The termjauharoften connotesjauhar-immolation. Jauhar involved Hindu Rajput women committing suicide with their children and valuables in a massive fire, in order to avoid capture and abuse in the face of inescapable military defeat.[7][14]At the same time or shortly thereafter, the men would ritualistically march to the battlefield expecting certain death, which in the regional tradition is calledsaka.[1]This practice was intended to show that those committing it valued their honor more highly than their lives.

Jauharby Hindu kingdoms has been documented by Muslim historians of theDelhi Sultanate,and theMughal Empire.[14][15][16]Among the most often cited examples ofjauharis the mass suicide committed in 1303 CE by the women ofChittorgarhfort in Rajasthan, when faced with the invading army of theKhalji dynastyof the Delhi Sultanate.[17][18]Thejauharphenomenon was also observed in other parts of India, such as in theKampili kingdomof northernKarnatakawhen it fell in 1327 to Delhi Sultanate armies.[16]

There is an annual celebration of heroism called the Jauhar Mela in Chittorgarh where the local people commemorate their ancestors.[19]

Etymology

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The wordjauharis connected to Sanskritjatugr̥ha,meaning a "house plastered with lac and other combustible materials for burning people alive in".[20]It has also been incorrectly interpreted to have been derived from thePersiangōhar,which refers to "gem, worth, virtue". This confusion, as author John Stratton Hawley states, rose from the fact thatjivharandjauharwere written in the same manner with the same letter used to denotevandu.Thus,jivharhas also came to be incorrectly associated with the meaning ofjauhar.[21]

Practice

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The practice ofjauharhas been claimed as being culturally related toSati,with both being a form of suicide by women through self-immolation. However, the two are only superficially similar, with the underlying reason for both being significantly different. Sati was the custom of a widow committing suicide by sitting on her husband's funeral pyre.[22]Jauhar was collective self-immolation by women in order to escape being captured and forced into slavery by invaders[23]when defeat was imminent. Self-immolation was preferred over simple suicide because it would negate the possibility of any defilement of their dead bodies which their husbands, children and/or clansmen might have to watch.

Kaushik Roy states thatjauharwas observed only during Hindu-Muslim wars, but not during internecine Hindu-Hindu wars among the Rajputs.[24]John Hawley, however, disagrees with this assertion; he links it to theGreek conquerorswho also captured Indian women, arguing that the practice of jauhar might have started with the Greek campaigns in the region.[25]Veena Talwar Oldenburgdisagrees as well, saying that "internecine warfare among the Rajput kingdoms almost certainly supplied the first occasions for jauhar, well before the Muslim invasions with which the practice is popularly associated" and that "the geopolitics of the northwest, whence a succession of invaders entered the subcontinent, made of Rajasthan a continual war zone, and its socially most respected community was therefore not the Brahmins but the kshatriya or Rajput castes, who controlled and defended the land. This history predates the coming of the Muslims by more than a millennium. Commemorative stones unearthed and dated in Rajasthan and Vijayanagara mark the deaths of both sexes. Their dates, which can be reliably determined, match perfectly the times and zones of war."[26]

The phenomenon ofjauharhas been reported and perceived by Hindus and Muslims differently. In Hindu traditions,jauharwas a heroic act by the women of a community facing certain defeat and abuse by the enemy.[7][27]For Muslim historians,jauharwas portrayed as an act forced upon women by their culture.[1]Amir Khusrauthe poetic scholar described it, states Arvind Sharma – a professor of Comparative Religion, as "no doubt magical but nevertheless they are heroic".[28]

Occurrence

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Among the most cited cases ofjauharare three occurrences at the fort ofChittaur(Chittaurgarh, Chittorgarh), in Rajasthan, in1303,[29]1535,and1568 CE.[30]Jaisalmerwas the scene of two occurrences ofjauhar,one in the year 1299 CE, during the reign of theAlauddin Khalji,and another during the reign of theTughlaq dynastyin 1326.[31][32]Jauharandsakawere considered heroic acts, and the practice was glorified in the local ballads and folklore ofRajasthan.[33]

Jauhar during invasion of Alexander of Macedon

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The mass self-immolation by theAgalassoitribe of northwest India is mentioned in Book 6 ofThe Anabasis of Alexander,Arrian's 2nd-century CE military history ofAlexander the Greatbetween 336 and 323 BCE. Arrian mentions Alexander's army conquering and enslaving peoples of the northwestIndian subcontinent.During a war that killed many in the Macedonian and Agalossoi armies, some 20,000 men, women and children of an Agalossoi town set fire to the town and immolated themselves when they came to believe that military defeat was imminent.[34][35]

TheMalli tribealso performed a similar act, which Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont considersjauhar.Arrian states that they started burning their houses with themselves in it, though any Indian captured alive in their houses was slaughtered by the Greeks.[36]

Jauhar of Sindh: Muhammad bin Qasim

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In 712, Muhammed bin Qasim and his army attacked various kingdoms of the western regions of the Indian subcontinent. He laid siege to the capital ofRaja Dahir,then to the Hindu king in the area ofSind.After Dahir had been killed, the queen (Ladi) coordinated the defense of the capital for several months. As the food supplies ran out, she and the women of the capital refused to surrender, lit pyres and committedjauhar.The remaining men walked out to their deaths at the hands of the invading army.[37][38]

Jauhar of Gwalior: Iltutmish

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Shams ud-Din Iltutmishof theDelhi Sultanateattacked Gwalior in 1232, then under control of the Rajputs. The Rajput women committedjauharinstead of submitting to Iltutmish's army. The place where the women committed mass suicide, in the northern end of the Gwalior fort, is known as Jauhar-tal (or Johar kund, Jauhar Tank).[39][40][41]

Jauhar of Ranthambore: Alauddin Khalji

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Sultan Alau'd Din put to Flight; Women of Ranthambhor commit Jauhar.Indian, Pahari style painting from c. 1825

In 1301,Alauddin KhaljiofDelhi Sultanatebesieged andconquered the Ranthambore fort.When faced with certain defeat, the defending rulerHammiradevadecided to fight to death with his soldiers, and his minister Jaja supervised the organization of ajauhar.The queens, daughters and other female relatives of Hammira Deva committed jauhar.[42]

Hammira Dev’s wife Rani Rang Devi and his daughter Padmala, along with other women, made the decision to commitjauharin order to protect their honor from the invading Islamic army. However, they found no time to arrange a huge sacrificial fire and altar in which to commitjauhar,thus they committed mass suicide by jumping into the reservoir at the fort. In her honor the reservoir has been named "Padmala Talav"

Thejauharat Ranthambore was described by Alauddin's courtierAmir Khusrau,[43]which makes it the firstjauharto be described in aPersian languagetext.[44]

First Jauhar of Chittor: Alauddin Khalji

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According to many scholars, the first jauhar of Chittorgarh occurred during the1303 siegeof the Chittor fort.[45][46][47]Thisjauharbecame a subject of legendary Rajasthani poems, withRani Padminithe main character, wherein she and other Rajput women commitjauharto avoid being captured byAlauddin Khaljiof Delhi Sultanate.[45]The historicity of the first jauhar of Chittor is based on Rajasthani traditional belief as well as IslamicSufi literaturesuch asPadmavatbyMalik Muhammad Jayasi.[48]

Jauhar of Kampili: Muhammad bin Tughluq

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The Hindu women of theKampili kingdomof northernKarnatakacommittedjauharwhen it fell in 1327 to Delhi Sultanate armies of Muhammad bin Tughluq.[16]

Jauhar of Chanderi: Babur

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The self-immolation (jauhar) of the Hindu women, during theSiege of Chittorgarhin 1568

The Hindu Rajput kingMedini Rairuled overChanderiin northernMadhya Pradeshin early 16th century. He tried to helpRana Sangain theBattle of Khanuaagainst the Muslim armies ofBabur,the founder of theMughal Empire.In January 1528 CE, his fort was overwhelmed by the invading forces ofBabur.The women and children of the Chanderi fort committedjauhar,the men dressed up in saffron garments and walked the ritual ofsakaon 29 January.[49]

Second Jauhar of Chittor: Bahadur Shah

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Rana Sangadied in 1528 CE after theBattle of Khanwa.Shortly afterwards, Mewar andChittorcame under the regency of his widow,Rani Karnavati.The kingdom was besieged byBahadur Shah of Gujarat.Rani committed Jauhar with other women on 8 March 1535, while the Rajput army rallied out to meet the besieging Muslim army and committed saka.[50]

As Chittorgarh faced an imminent attack from the Sultan of Gujarat, Karnavati sought the assistance of the Mughal emperorHumayunto whom she had once offered arakhi.Bahadur Shah sacked the fort for the second time. Rani Karnavati with 13,000 women shut themselves with gunpowder, lit it and thus committed mass suicide.[51]

However, the narrative of Karnawati sending Rakhi toHumayunis a fictional story which wrongly became a part of folklore based on an unreliable gossip from the 17th century (200 years after the event). Contemporary Persian and Hindu authorities did not mention this story at all.[52]

Third Jauhar of Chittor: Akbar

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The armies of Mughal EmperorAkbarbesieged the Rajput fort ofChittorin September 1567.[53]After his army conquered Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, Hindu women committedjauharin spring of 1568 CE, and the next morning, thousands of Rajput men walked the saka ritual.[54][55]The Mughal army killed all the Rajputs who walked out the fort.[55]Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak,who was not an immediate witness, gave a hearsay account of the event as seen byAkbarand his army. Abu'l-Fazl states that the women were victims of Rajput men and unwilling participants, and these Rajputs came out walking to die, throwing away their lives.[1]According to David Smith, when Akbar entered the Chittorgarh fort in 1568, it was "nothing but an immense crematorium".[56]

According to Lindsey Harlan, thejauharof 1568 is a part of regional legend and is locally remembered on the Hindu festival ofHolias a day of Chittorgarh massacre by the Akbar army, with "the red color signifying the blood that flowed on that day".[55]

Three Jauhars of Raisen: Humayun

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RaiseninMadhya Pradeshwas repeatedly attacked by the Mughal Army in the early 16th century. In 1528, the firstjauharwas led by Rani Chanderi.[57]After the Mughal army left, the kingdom refused to accept orders from Delhi. After a long siege of Raisen fort, that exhausted all supplies within the fort, Rani Durgavati and 700 Raisen women committed the secondjauharin 1532 while the men led by Lakshman Tuar committedsaka.[58]This refusal to submit to Mughal rule repeated, and in 1543 the thirdjauharwas led by Rani Ratnavali.[57]

Jauhar of Bundelkhand: Aurangzeb

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Aurangzebwith vast army laid siege toBundelain Madhya Pradesh in December 1634 CE. The resident women committedjauharas the fort fell. Those who had not completed the ritual and survived thejauharin progress were forced into theharem.Men were forced to convert to Islam whereas those who refused were executed.[59][60]

Jauhar of Daddanala: Mir Fazlullah

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In 1710 CE, Mir Fazlullah, a rebel Mughalamir,invaded Daddanala, a town in thePrakasam Districtof Andhra Pradesh that was the capital of the DupatiSayapaneni Nayaks.[61]As Sayapaneni Pedda Venkatadri Nayudu, who was in charge, died during the conflict, all the assembled Sayapaneni women set fire to the houses in the fort and were burnt to death.[61]The five-year-old prince Mallikarjuna Nayudu was saved by a maidservant who had smuggled him out through an orifice in the walls of the fort and was raised by his relatives.[61]

Jauhar among Mughals

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Practices like the jauhar however weren't limited to Hindus. Muslim rulers are recorded to have their women killed in order to prevent any degradation of their honour.[62]

Jahangirin his memoirs states that his nobleman Khan-i-Jahan ordered his wives to commitjauharduring a battle with his enemy,Sher Shah Suri.During a war with theAhom kingdom,Mirza Nathan ordered all Mughal women in his camp to be killed if he died. He later ordered them to perform jauhar.[63]

See also

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References

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  1. ^abcdMargaret Pabst Battin (2015).The Ethics of Suicide: Historical Sources.Oxford University Press. p. 285.ISBN978-0-19-513599-2.
  2. ^Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996).The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760.University of California Press. p. 166.ISBN978-0-520-20507-9.
  3. ^Eaton, R.M., (2019),India in the Persiante Age 1000-1765,p219. Great Britain: Allen Lane
  4. ^Levi, Scott C. (November 2002)."Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.12(3): 277–288.doi:10.1017/S1356186302000329.JSTOR25188289.S2CID155047611.
  5. ^Jayawardena, K.; de Alwis, M. (1996).Embodied Violence: Communalising Female Sexuality in South Asia.ACLS Humanities E-Book. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 120.ISBN978-1-85649-448-9.
  6. ^John Stratton Hawley (1994).Sati, the Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India.Oxford University Press. p. 189.ISBN978-0-19-536022-6.
  7. ^abcdLindsey Harlan (1992).Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives.University of California Press. pp. 160 footnote 8.ISBN978-0-520-07339-5.,Quote: "In this she resembles the sati who dies in jauhar. The jauhar sati dies before and while her husband fights what appears to be an unwinnable battle. By dying, she frees him from worry about her welfare and saves herself from the possible shame of rape by triumphant enemy forces."
  8. ^Arvind Sharma (1988), Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays, Motilal Banarsidass Publ,ISBN9788120804647,page xi, 86
  9. ^Margaret Pabst Battin.The Ethics of Suicide: Historical Sources.Oxford University Press.p. 285.Jauhar specifically refers to the self-immolation of the women and children in anticipation of capture and abuse.
  10. ^Mary Storm.Head and Heart: Valour and Self-Sacrifice in the Art of India.Routledge.The women would build a great bonfire, and in their wedding finery, with their children and with all their valuables, they would immolate themselves en masse.
  11. ^Pratibha Jain, Saṅgītā Śarmā, Honour, status & polity
  12. ^Mandakranta Bose (2014), Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195352771,page 26
  13. ^Malise Ruthven (2007), Fundamentalism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0199212705,page 63;
    John Stratton Hawley (1994), Sati, the Blessing and the Curse, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195077742,page 165-166
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  22. ^Veena Oldenburg, A Comment to Ashis Nandy's "Sati as Profit versus Sati as Spectacle: The Public Debate on Roop Kanwar's Death," in Hawley, Sati the Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India, page 165
  23. ^Mandakranta Bose (2014),Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India,Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195352771,page 26
  24. ^Kaushik Roy (2012), Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-1107017368,pages 182-184
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  26. ^Veena Talwar Oldenburg, "Comment: The Continuing Invention of the Sati Tradition" in John Stratton Hawley (ed.),Sati, the Blessing and the Curse: The Burning of Wives in India,Oxford University Press (1994), p. 165
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  29. ^"Main Battles".Archived fromthe originalon 6 February 2012.
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  41. ^For an image of the site, seeJauhar Kund, Gwalior Fort,Archaeology Dept, Government of Madhya Pradesh, page 2
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  43. ^Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992,p. 368.
  44. ^Satish Chandra 2007,p. 97.
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    Mary Storm (2015).Head and Heart: Valour and Self-Sacrifice in the Art of India.Routledge. pp. 141–142.ISBN978-1-317-32557-4.
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Bibliography

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  • Media related toJauharat Wikimedia Commons