Jeju language

Not to be confused withJju language.

Jeju
Jejueo, Jejuan
제줏말/제주말 Jejun-mal/Jeju-mal
Native to	South Korea
Region	Jeju Province
Ethnicity	Jejuans(KoreansofJeju Island)
Native speakers	5,000 (2014)
Language family	Koreanic Jeju
Early forms	Proto-Koreanic Old Korean Middle Korean
Writing system	Hangul
Language codes
ISO 639-3	jje
Glottolog	jeju1234
ELP	Jejueo
Jeju is classified as Critically Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Jeju(Jeju:제줏말;Jeju RR:Jejun-mal,orKorean:제주어;RR:Jeju-eo,or제주말;Jeju-mal), often calledJejueoorJejuanin English-language scholarship, is aKoreanic languageoriginally fromJeju Island,South Korea.It is notmutually intelligiblewith mainland Korean dialects. While it was historically considered a divergentJeju dialectof the Korean language, it is increasingly referred to as a separate language in its own right. It is declining in usage and was classified byUNESCOin 2010 ascritically endangered,the highest level of language endangerment possible.Revitalizationefforts are ongoing.

The consonants of Jeju are similar to those of Seoul Korean, but Jeju has a larger and more conservative vowel inventory. Jeju is ahead-final,agglutinative,suffi xing language like Korean. Nouns are followed byparticlesthat may function ascase markers.Verbsinflectfortense, aspect, mood,evidentiality,relative social status, formality, and other grammatical information. Korean and Jeju differ significantly in their verbal paradigms. For instance, thecontinuative aspectmarker of Jeju and themoodoraspectdistinction of many Jeju connective suffixes are absent in Korean. Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and the language preserves manyMiddle Koreanwords now lost in Standard Korean. Jeju may also have aPeninsular Japonicsubstratum, but this argument has been disputed.

Jeju was already divergent from theSeoul dialectof Korean by the fifteenth century and unintelligible to mainland Korean visitors by the sixteenth century. The language was severely undermined by theJeju uprisingof 1948, theKorean War,and themodernization of South Korea.Many fluent speakers remaining in Jeju Island are now over seventy years old. Most people in Jeju Island now speak a variety of Korean with a Jejusubstratum.The language may be somewhat more vigorous in a diaspora community inOsaka,Japan,as many Jeju people migrated to Osaka in the 1920s, but even there, younger members of the community tend to speakJapanese.

Nomenclature and relationship to Korean

1995-1999 48 2000-2004 51 2005-2009 51 2010-2014 55 Total: 205 Jeju language Jeju dialect Source:

Nomenclature of Jeju in the titles of South Korean academic publications

Various terms in both Korean and English exist for the Jeju language, which also vary depending on whether it is considered a separate language or a dialect of Korean by the speaker.

Among native speakers, the term "Jeju speech" (제주말;Jeju-mal) is most commonly used.In English-language scholarship, it is often called Jejueo or Jejuan.

Language or dialect distinction

Jeju is closely related to Korean. It was traditionally considered an especially divergentdialectof Korean, and as of 2019is still referred to as such by theNational Institute of the Korean Languageand theSouth Korean Ministry of Education.

Until the 2000s, South Korean academia preferred the term "Jeju dialect" (제주방언;Jeju bang-eon). While the term "Jeju language" (제주어;Jeju-eo) was first used in 1947, it was not until the mid-1990s that the term gained traction. The majority of South Korean academic publications switched to using "Jeju language" by the early 2010s.Since somewhat earlier, "Jeju language" has also been the term preferred in local law, such as the 2007 Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,and by non-governmental organizations working to preserve the language.The only English-languagemonographon Jeju, published in 2019, consistently refers to it as a language as well.

Mutual intelligibility with modern South Korean Korean

Jeju is notmutually intelligiblewith even the southernmost dialects of South Korea. In a 2014 survey measuring intelligibility, Korean speakers from three different dialect zones (Seoul,Busan,andYeosu) were exposed to one minute of spoken Jeju, with acontrol groupof native Jeju speakers. On average, South Korean native speakers from all three dialect zones answered less than 10% of the basic comprehension questions correctly, while native Jeju speakers answered over 89% of the questions correctly. These results are comparable to the results of an intelligibility test ofNorwegianfor nativeDutchspeakers.Diaspora Jeju speakers living in Japan have also reported that they find it difficult to understand South Korean news media, and resort to Japanese subtitles when watching South Korean TV shows.

Geographic distribution

Jeju was traditionally spoken throughoutJeju Provinceexcept in theChuja Islands,halfway between Jeju Island and mainland Korea, where a variety ofSouthwestern Koreanis found.The language is also used by some of thefirst- and second-generationmembers of theZainichi Koreancommunity inIkuno-ku,Osaka,Japan.

Compared to mainland Korean dialect groups, there is little internal variation within Jeju. A distinction between a northern and southern dialect with a geographic divide atHallasanis sometimes posited, but an eastern-western dialectal divide cutting throughJeju CityandSeogwipomay better explain the few dialectal differences that do exist.A 2010 survey of regional variation in 305 word sets suggests that the north–south divide and the east–west divide coexist, resulting in four distinct dialect groups.

• 
  An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard".
  Eastern Seogwipo uses장쿨레비jangkullebiwhile western Seogwipo uses독다구리dokdaguri.
• 
  A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab".

History

Pre-modern history

The Koreanic languages are likely not native to Jeju Island; it has been proposed that the family has its roots inManchuria,a historical region in northeastern Asia. It is thought that Koreanic speakers migrated from southern Manchuria between the third and eighth centuries CE. LinguistAlexander Vovinsuggests that the ancient kingdom ofTamna,which ruled the island until the twelfth century, may have spoken aJaponiclanguage that left asubstrateinfluence on Jeju. When exactly this putative Japonic language may have been replaced by the Koreanic ancestor of Jeju remains unclear.

Unlike mainland Korea, which wasruled only indirectly by the Mongols,Jeju was placed under directYuanadministration in the late thirteenth century. Significant numbers of Mongol soldiers migrated to the island during this period, andtheir languageacted as asuperstratumthat may have accelerated local language change. Linguist Yang Changyong speculates that the formation of Jeju as a language independent of Korean was influenced by Mongol.

During the late thirteenth century, Jeju Island came under direct Yuan administration, which lead to significant migration of Mongol soldiers to the island. Acting as a superstratum, their language contributed to the change of the local language. Yang Changyong, a linguist, speculates that Mongol influence played a significant role in the formation of Jejueo as a distinct language independentfrom standard Korean.

By the fifteenth century, when the invention ofHangulgreatly improved the understanding of Korean phonology, Seoul Korean and Jeju were already divergent; the Seoulprestige dialectof fifteenth-century Middle Korean disallowed the diphthong/jʌ/,which Jeju allows.Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century references to the language of Jeju by mainland Korean literati state that it was already unintelligible to mainland Koreans.Kim Sang-heon(1570―1652), who from 1601 to 1602 served as the island's pacification commissioner,gives six words in the "provincial language" with clear cognates in modern Jeju and also writes:

Trích người thân trường linh nãi dịch quan cũng nếm rằng “So đảo giọng nói khốc lấy Trung Hoa như đuổi trâu ngựa tiếng động vưu không thể biện bạch vân vân cái không khí cùng hoa không cách mà nhiên gia từng vi nguyên triều sở theo trí quan với này cố cùng hoa tương tạp mà nhiên gia”... Cái gọi là lời nói quê mùa giả nhưng cao tế không thể hiểu

"The exiled man Shin Jangnyeong was originally agovernment interpreter.He said, 'The language of this island is most like Chinese, and the sounds they make while driving cattle and horses are yet more impossible to tell apart. Is this because the climate is not far from that of China, or because the Yuan dynasty once ruled and appointed officials here and the Chinese mingled with them?'... What is called the provincial language is but high and thin and cannot be understood. "

In 1629, the Korean government banned the emigration of Jeju Islanders to the mainland, further restricting linguistic contacts between Jeju and Korean.At the same time, the island was also used throughout theJoseonera (1392―1910) as a place of exile for disgracedscholar-officials.These highly educated speakers of Seoul Korean often tutored the children of their Jeju neighbors during their exile and established a continuous and significant Seoul Korean superstratum in Jeju.

Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)

See also:Korea under Japanese ruleandJapanese influence on Korean culture

Under theJapanese colonial rule,Jejueo remained the dominating language in both public and private spheres on Jeju Island. However, with the entrance of Japanese loanwords to the lexicon, some speakers becamemonolingualJapanese speakers. Migration of Jeju Islanders to Japan began to skyrocket in 1911, with significant communities established, more so in cities like Osaka, becoming home to 38,000 Jeju Islanders by 1911. Despite gaining independence, citizens of Jeju and Korea still migrated to Japan, continuing to impact the linguistic landscape of Jeju Island as the younger generations within thediasporacommunities only spoke Japanese, leading the decline in fluency in Jejueo.

Modern period and decline (1945–present)

Jeju inhabitants awaiting execution in late 1948

See also:Jeju uprisingandKorean War

Severe disruption to the Jeju language community began after the end of Japanese rule and World War II in 1945.Korea was dividedbetween anAmerican government in the Southand aSoviet government in the north,which were succeeded by South Korea and North Korea correspondingly in 1948. Popular opposition to the division and many other issues led to a rebellion on Jeju island on 3 April 1948. TheSyngman Rheeregime suppressed the rebellion with mass killings of civilians. As many as 60,000 Jeju Islanders, or a full fifth of the pre-rebellion population, were killed. 40,000 more fled to Japan. Out of the 400 villages of the island, only 170 remained.

The devastating impact of the massacres on the Jeju language community was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. While Jeju was never occupied by the North Korean army, nearly 150,000 Korean-speaking refugees from the mainland fleeing North Korean invasion arrived in Jeju in the first year of the war.

The above events shattered the Jeju language's former dominance on the island,and Standard Korean began to displace Jeju in the public sphere by the 1950s.The 1970sSaemaeul Undong,an ambitious rural modernization program launched byPark Chung Hee,disrupted the traditional village community where Jeju had thrived. The language came to be perceived as an incorrect dialect of Korean; students were even subject to corporal punishment if they used it in school.Standard Korean became more commonplace in private settings even outside ofJeju City.Thelanguage attitudeof native Jeju speakers in this period was self-disparaging, and even Jeju people regarded the use of Jeju "with contempt."A 1981 survey of language attitudes among high school and university students natively speaking Seoul Korean,Chungcheong Korean,Southwestern Korean,Southeastern Korean,and Jeju showed that Jeju speakers were the most likely among the five groups to ascribe negative traits to their native variety.

A 1992 study ofcode-switchingby native Jeju speakers shows that Jeju was by then in an unfavorablediglossicrelationship with Korean, and was largely restricted to informal contexts even between Jeju natives.Within a primarily Jeju conversation, Standard Korean was used to emphasize the rationality or truth value of statements. Switching to Jeju in a primarily Standard Korean conversation signified that the speaker was making a subjective statement or being less serious.

Code-switching rules in early 1990s Jeju

Participants	Formality	Intimacy	Social status	Preferred variety
Includes mainlander				Standard Korean
Only Jeju natives	Formal
	Informal	Participants are not emotionally intimate	Speaker is socially inferior to addressee
			Speaker is socially superior to addressee	Jeju/Jeju Korean
		Participants are emotionally intimate

The same study notes that by 1992, even this variety restricted to the informal domain was usually a Korean dialect with a Jeju substratum, rather than the traditional Jeju language:

현재 상용되는 제주말의 경우, 표준말과의 차이가 과거에 비해 크게 줄어들고 있는 상황으로써 특히 어미활용에서 표준말과의 차이가 극대화되며, 다른 부분에서는 상대적으로 표준말과의 차이가 극소화된다는 점이다. 따라서 제주사람들은 과거 사용되던 토박이 말에 가까운 것은 '진한 (심한) 제주말'로, 현재 사용되는 제주말은 '옅은 제주말' 또는 '(표준어와) 섞어진 말'로 표현하는 등, 제주말과 표준말이 일종의 방언 연속체를 형성하는 것으로 인식하고 있다.

"As for the Jeju language [lit. 'Jeju speech'] in general use nowadays [as of 1992], the situation is that its differences from Standard Korean are greatly diminishing compared to the past. Its greatest differences with Standard Korean [now] lie especially in the suffix paradigm, and in other areas the differences are being minimized. The Jeju people accordingly understand that Jeju and Standard Korean are in a form ofdialect continuum,and refer to the native language formerly in use as "thick (or intense) Jeju language" and the Jeju language currently in use as "light Jeju language" or "mixed (with Korean) language."

Current status and ongoing endangerment

Since 2010,UNESCOhas classified Jeju as a criticallyendangered language,defined as one whose "youngest speakers are grandparents and older... [who] speak the language partially and infrequently."In 2018, theEndangered Languages ArchiveatSOAS University of Londoncollected audio and video recordings of native Jeju speakers having everyday conversations, singing traditional songs, and performing rituals.

The official language of South Korea is Standard Korean. Nearly all residents of Jeju Island are bilingual in Standard Korean and Jeju, while many younger individuals are even more fluent in English than in Jeju. Standard Korean is most commonly used in the majority of public areas, while Jeju tends to be reserved for use at home and a few local markets.All schools located on Jeju Island are required to teach Standard Korean and only offer Jeju as anelective course.In addition, many Jeju Islander migrate to mainland Korea for a number of various reasons such as education, employment, and marriage contributing to decline of the Jejueo language.As a result, there are currently no monolingual speakers of Jeju.

The distinctive phonological, syntactic, and lexical features of the Jeju Island language, known as Jejueo or Jeju dialect, compared to Standard Korean, pose obstacles to effective communication. Phonological differences, such as variations in pitch accent and vowel distinctions, may lead to misunderstandings or difficulties in comprehension between Jeju natives and speakers of Standard Korean. Communication can also be made more difficult by syntactic variances, word order flexibility, and particle usage inconsistencies between Standard Korean and Jejueo. In contrast to the mainstream linguistic rules observed in mainland Korean, Jejueo maintains earlier grammatical structures and syntactic patterns that may lead to misunderstandings or confusion during conversations.

As of 2018, fluent speakers in Jeju Island were all over seventy years of age, whilepassive competencewas found in some people in their forties and fifties. Younger Islanders speak Korean with Jeju substrate influencefound in residual elements of the Jeju verbal paradigm and in select vocabulary such as kinship terms.The language is more vigorous in Osaka, where there may be fluent speakers born as late as the 1960s.

A 2008 survey of adult residents' knowledge of ninety Jeju cultural words showed that only twenty-one were understood by the majority of those surveyed.Lack ofheritage knowledgeof Jeju is even more severe among younger people. In 2010, 400 Jeju teenagers were surveyed for their knowledge of 120 basic Jeju vocabulary items, but only 19 words were recognized by the majority while 45 words were understood by less than 10%.A 2018 study suggests that even the verbal paradigm, among the more resilient parts of the substratum, may be in danger; the average middle schooler was more competent in the verb system of English, a language "taught only a few hours a week in school and in private tutoring institutions," than of Jeju.

Local attitudes towards Jeju

Historically, the Jeju language was seen as impolite or uncultured. Jeju uses fewer honorifics and has four levels of politeness, in comparison to the seven levels in Standard Korean.Because of the linguistic differences and cultural differences, Jeju Islanders were marginalized and excluded among mainland Koreans.In a 2011Korea Timesarticle, a student said they believed the language was not respectful enough to use with professors, and that the Seoul dialect was more sophisticated. In addition, Jeju is often associated with the countryside, as the majority of speakers tend to have traditional occupations, including farming, fishing, and diving. As a result, many younger children express a disinterest in learning the language.

Improving sentiment

However, recent surveys show improved sentiment towards the Jeju language. In aNational Institute of the Korean Languagesurvey in 2005, only 9.4% of Jeju Islanders were very proud of the regional variety. When the same survey was readministered in 2015, 36.8% were very proud of the language,and Jeju Islanders had become the most likely among South Korean dialect groups to have "very positive" opinions of the regional variety.In a 2017 study of 240 Jeju Islanders, 82.8% of those sampled considered Jeju to be "nice to listen to,"and 74.9% hoped that their children would learn the language.But significant generational differences in attitudes were also observed. For instance, only 13.8% of Jeju Islanders between 20 and 40 much preferred Jeju over Standard Korean, while 49.1% of those above 80 did.

In a 2013 survey of Jeju natives, 77.9% agreed with the statement that "[the Jeju language] has to be passed down as part of Jeju culture."But a 2015 study of approximately 1,000 Jeju Islanders suggests that even though most Jeju Islanders believe the language to be an important part of the island's culture, the vast majority are skeptical of the language's long-term viability, and more people are unwilling than willing to actively participate in language preservation efforts.

Revitalization efforts

ᄒᆞᆫ디 배우는 제주어Hawndi Baeu-neun Jeju-eo,an introductory textbook published by the Jeju Language Preservation Society

Revitalization effortshave been ongoing.

Government efforts

On 27 September 2007, theJeju provincialgovernment promulgated the Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,which established five-year plans for state-backed language preservation. The Act encouraged public schools on Jeju Island to offer Jeju as an extracurricular activity, as well as to incorporate the language as a part of regular classes if relevant and feasible.In addition, multiple programs were provided for adults. For example, adult language programs are offered every year at the Jeju National University and are free of charge. There are also several local centres on Jeju Island that offer classes in Jeju Language specifically to marriage-based immigrants.

However, it was not until UNESCO's 2010 designation of Jeju as critically endangered that the provincial government became proactive in Jeju preservation efforts.In 2016, the provincial government allotted₩685,000,000 (US$565,592 in 2016) to revitalization programs,and the government-fundedJeju Research Institutehas compiled phrasebooks of the language.The provincial Ministry of Education has also published Jeju textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, although some textbooks really teach Standard Korean interspersed with Jeju lexical items. Some public schools offer after-school programs for Jeju, but the short duration of these classes may be insufficient to promote more than "symbolic" use by students.The linguistic competence of many teachers has also been challenged.

On 12 August 2011, the Research Centre for Jeju Studies was opened with the purpose of implementing projects for the revitalization and safeguarding of Jeju Language.The project encouraged the promotion of Jeju Language in schools by tasking the Education Bureau with several initiatives, including a training program for teachers. The project also started a radio broadcast in Jeju Language, as well as a radio campaign for Jeju slang and an annual Jeju Language festival.An iPhone application was developed, including a glossary, as well as a collection of proverbs, poems, and quizzes in Jeju Language. Finally, an introductory conversation brochure was distributed to both citizens and visitors of Jeju Island.

Popular media efforts

The Jeju Language Preservation Society,founded in December 2008, publishes a bimonthly Jeju-language magazineDeongdeureong-makke(덩드렁마께) and holds Jeju teaching programs and speaking contests.Children's books and a 2014 poetry anthology have also been published. Local bands and theater troupes have made Jeju-language performances.Regional newspapers such as theJemin Ilboand theHalla Ilboinclude Jeju-language sections.

Local branches ofKBSandMBChave launched Jeju radio programs and a television series.Recent South Korean media with nationwide appeal, including the 2010 television seriesLife is BeautifulandThe Great Merchant,the 2012 drama filmJiseul,and the 2015 television seriesWarm and Cozy,have also featured spoken Jeju.

Cultural differences

In addition to the difference in language and dialect, Jeju Islanders and mainland Koreans share a number of cultural differences.

The historical isolation and unique identity of Jeju Island, which have nourished a strong sense of regional pride and unity among Jeju inhabitants, are two significant cultural differences. Jeju Island's distinct cultural traditions, folk beliefs, and practices set it apart from the Korean mainland are a result of the island's geographic isolation. For example, Jeju's traditional women divers, orhaenyeo,represent the ideals of resiliency, collaboration, and environmental care and represent the island's matriarchal legacy and collective spirit.

Moreover, Jeju Island's tumultuous history, including the Jeju rebellion and subsequent mass killings, has left a profound impact on the collective memory and social identity of Jeju Islanders. The trauma and scars of historical events continue to resonate in the cultural consciousness, shaping perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among Jeju natives. These experiences have contributed to a distinct sense of identity and solidarity among Jeju Islanders, often manifesting in cultural expressions, artistic forms, and community rituals that reflect resilience and resistance against oppression.

Religious practices on Jeju Island encompass a diverse range of beliefs, includingshamanism,Buddhism,andChristianity,each contributing to the island's rich religious heritage and spiritual landscape. These religious traditions intersect with cultural rituals and festivals, such as the annual Jeju Fire Festival and Seongsan Sunrise Festival, which celebrate Jeju's natural beauty, cultural heritage, and community solidarity.

Orthography

Jeju has historically had nowritten language.Two recently devised standardorthographiesare currently in use: a system created in 1991 by scholars of the Jeju Dialect Research Society,and a system promulgated by the provincial government in 2014.Both systems use the Korean Alpha betHangulwith one additional letterㆍ,which was used in theMiddleandEarly Modern Koreanscripts but is now defunct in written Korean. Similar to the modern Korean script, Jeju orthographies havemorphophonemictendencies, meaning that transcribing the underlyingmorphologygenerally takes precedence over thesurface form.The two orthographies differ largely because they are based on different morphological analyses of the language, especially of the verbal paradigm, as seen in the example below.

Orthography	Underlying morphemes			Jeju word	Necessary analysis
Research Society orthography	나끄- nakkeu- 나끄- nakkeu- "to fish"	-엄시 -eomsi CONT -엄시 -eomsi CONT	-민 -min COND -민 -min COND	나껌시민 nakkeomsimin 나껌시민 nakkeomsimin "if [he] is fishing"	Stem-final vowel-euis lost before vowel-initial suffix
Government orthography	낚- nakk- 낚- nakk- "to fish"	-어ᇝ -eoms CONT -어ᇝ -eoms CONT	-민 -min COND -민 -min COND	낚어ᇝ이민 nakkeomsimin 낚어ᇝ이민 nakkeomsimin "if [he] is fishing"	Conditional suffix-minrequiresepentheticalvowel-i-after consonant

This article will use the government's orthography where the two differ.

Transliteration or romanization

Thetransliterationscheme generally used in Korean linguistics, including when transcribing Jeju, is theYale Romanization system.Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 instead uses a variant of theRevised Romanizationsystem with the addition of the sequenceawforㆍ/ɒ/.

This article also uses Revised Romanization with the addition ofaw,but without Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's one-to-one correspondence between Hangul glyphs and the Latin Alpha bet.

Phonology

Consonants

The non-approximant consonants of Jeju correspond to thenineteen non-approximant consonants of Standard Korean,and Jeju displays the three-way contrast betweenstopsandaffricatescharacteristic of Modern Korean. Whether thevoiced glottal fricative/ɦ/,absent in Standard Korean, exists as aphonemein Jeju or merely as an allophone of/h/remains disputed.A 2000 acoustic and aerodynamic study of eight native Jeju speakers concludes that "the consonants of the two languages seem to be the same in every respect... the phonetic realization of all [Jeju] consonants are the same as those found in [Seoul] Korean."

Consonant phonemes

		Bilabial	Alveolar	(Alveolo-) Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		mㅁ	nㄴ		ŋㅇ
Stop and affricate	lax	pㅂ	tㄷ	tɕㅈ	kㄱ
	tense	p͈ㅃ	t͈ㄸ	t͈ɕㅉ	k͈ㄲ
	aspirated	pʰㅍ	tʰㅌ	tɕʰㅊ	kʰㅋ
Fricative	lax/aspirated		sㅅ			hㅎ (ɦㅇ)
	tense		s͈ㅆ
Liquid			l~ɾㄹ
Approximant		w		j	(ɰ)

Consonantal phonological processes

Jejuallophonyinvolves a number ofphonological processesalso found in Seoul Korean. As in Korean,/l/surfaces as[ɾ]intervocally. Also as in Korean, lax stops and affricates have fully voiced allophones in medial position, allobstruentshaveunreleasedallophones in final position, and syllable-final sibilants surface as[t̚].Whether non-lax stops and affricatescan appear in final position is controversial. The morphological analysis necessary for the government's orthography permits them, while the analysis behind the Jeju Language Research Society's orthography forbids them.

Lax obstruent	ㄱ g	ㄷ d	ㅅ s	ㅈ j	ㅂ b
Initial allophone	k~kʰ	t~tʰ	s	tɕ~tɕʰ	p~pʰ
Medial allophone	ɡ	d	s~z	dʑ	b
Final allophone	k̚	t̚			p̚

Mostnon-morphophonological consonant assimilation rules of Standard Koreanare also found in Jeju./s/and/s͈/are regularlypalatalizedto[ʃ]before/i/or/j/.Lax obstruents are tensed following another obstruent./h/aspirates both the preceding and the subsequent lax obstruent. A nasal consonant nasalizes a preceding obstruentor/h/./l/becomes[n]following all consonants except itself or/n/,and this[n]can itself nasalize the preceding obstruent so that the underlying sequence/pl/is realized as[mn].On the other hand, underlying/ln/and/nl/both produce[ll].

Non-morphophonological consonant allophony

Jeju word	Underlying phonemes	Realization
심"strength"	/sim/	[ʃim]	Palatalization before high vowel/i/
역불"on purpose"	/jəkpul/	[jək̚p͈ul]	Lax obstruent tensed after another obstruent
밧갈쉐"ox"	/paskalswe/	[pat̚k͈alswe]
흡헬귀"bloodsucker"	/hɨphelkwi/	[hɨpʰelɡwi]	/h/aspirates surrounding obstruents
돗늬"pig's tooth"	/tosn(ɰ)i/	[tonni]	Nasals nasalize preceding obstruent
녹낭"camphor tree"	/noknaŋ/	[noŋnaŋ]
섭낭"firewood"	/səpnaŋ/	[səmnaŋ]
멩랑"cleverness"	/meŋlaŋ/	[meŋnaŋ]	/l/is realized as[n]after most consonants; underlying/l/will nasalize preceding obstruent
섭력"cooperation"	/səpljək/	[səmnjək̚]
칼ᄂᆞᆯ"blade"	/kʰalnɒl/	[kʰallɒl]	/l/assimilates both preceding and subsequent/n/
곤란"difficulty"	/konlan/	[kollan]

Jeju also has consonant allophones that appear only atmorphemeboundaries. Some of these are found in Standard Korean, such as the insertion of[n]beforei-orj-at most word-internal morpheme boundaries; the palatalization of/t/to[dʑ]before an affixal-i;and the tensing of obstruents following certain morpheme-final nasals. Other rules are absent in Standard Korean. For instance, asonorant-final word or morpheme can trigger aspiration (for older speakers) or tensing (for younger speakers) in a subsequent lax consonant. In some cases this is due toan underlying consonant cluster,but not all cases can be explained in this way. Other Jeju-specific processes include the doubling of a word-final consonant when followed by a vowel, glide, or/h/,and thelenitionof/p/to[w]at some word boundaries.

Consonant allophony at morpheme boundaries

Jeju word (morphemes hyphenated)	Underlying phonemes	Realization
쏙입ssog-ip"inner leaf"	/s͈okip/	[s͈oŋnip̚]	n-insertion before/i/
ᄆᆞᆮ이mawd-i"eldest child"	/mɒti/	[mɒdʑi]	/t/palatalized before/i/,voiced in medial position
검수다keom-su-da"to be black" [honoring addressee]	/kəmsuta/	[kəms͈uda]	Obstruent tensed after verb stem-final nasal
술벵sul-beng"alcohol bottle"	/sulpeŋ/	[sulpʰeŋ]	Aspiration after sonorant (for older speakers)
빵집ppang-jip"bakery"	/p͈aŋtɕip/	[p͈aŋtɕʰip̚]
일월il-weol"January"	/ilwəl/	[illwəl]	Consonant doubling
지집아이jijib-ai"girl"	/tɕitɕipai/	[tɕidʑip̚p͈ai]
대왓(from대+밧dae-bat) "bamboo field"	/tæpat/	[tæwat̚]	Lenition of/p/

Verbal conjugation can also lead to consonantal changes. Verb stem-final/l/and/h/are lost before/n/.In the case of verb stems ending in-d,-p.-s,and-k,the final consonants are always preserved in so-called regular verbs, but in irregular verbs,-dand-parelenitedto[ɾ]and[u~w]respectively while-sand-kare lost when followed by a vowel.

Final-consonant allomorphy in irregular verbs

Underlying morphemes		Surface realization	Regular verb
ᄃᆞᆮ-dawd-"to run"	-곡-gokCONN	ᄃᆞᆮ곡dawt-gok"runs, and"	받곡bat-gok"receives, and"
	-아-aSE	ᄃᆞᆯ아dawr-a"runs"	받아bad-a"receives"
빕-bib-"to pour"	-곡-gokCONN	빕곡bip-gok"pours, and"	입곡ip-gok"wears, and"
	-어-eoSE	비워biw-eo"pours"	입어ib-eo"wears"
짓-jis-"to compose writing"	-곡-gokCONN	짓곡jit-gok"composes writing, and"	짓곡jit-gok"builds, and"
	-어-eoSE	지어ji-eo"composes writing"	짓어jis-eo"builds"
눅-nug-"to lie down"	-곡-gokCONN	눅곡nuk-gok"lies down, and"	먹곡meok-gok"eats, and"
	-어-eoSE	누어nu-eo"lies down"	먹어meog-eo"eats"

Underlying consonant clusters

While not permitted in the surface representation of Jeju, morpheme-finalconsonant clusterscan exist in the underlying form. Many cases of post-sonorant aspiration involve morphemes whoseMiddle Koreancognates feature a final-h,suggesting that an underlying final-hafter the sonorant should be posited in Jeju as well.Besides theseh-final clusters, Jeju permits a number of other final consonant clusters, including-lk,-lm,-mk~ŋk,-sk,and (in the analysis of the government's orthography)-ms.These clusters surface as a single consonant in isolation or before a consonant, but are fully realized when followed by a vowel.

Realization of final consonant clusters

Underlying form	Realization in isolation/before consonant	Realization before vowel
ᄇᆞᆰ- /pɒlk/ ᄇᆞᆰ- /pɒlk/ "to be bright"	ᄇᆞᆰ고 [pɒk̚k͈o] ᄇᆞᆰ고 [pɒk̚k͈o]	ᄇᆞᆰ언 [pɒlɡən] ᄇᆞᆰ언 [pɒlɡən]
삶 /salm/ 삶 /salm/ "life"	삶 [sam] 삶 [sam]	삶이 [salmi] 삶이 [salmi]
나ᇚ /namk ~ ~ 나ᇬ naŋk ~ ~ 낭 naŋ/ 나ᇚ ~ 나ᇬ ~ 낭 /namk~ naŋk~ naŋ/ "tree"	남 [nam ~ ~ 낭 naŋ] 남 ~ 낭 [nam~ naŋ]	남기 [namɡi ~ ~ 낭기 naŋɡi ~ ~ 낭이 naŋi] 남기 ~ 낭기 ~ 낭이 [namɡi ~ naŋɡi ~ naŋi]
-어ᇝ /əms/ CONT -어ᇝ /əms/ CONT	데껴ᇝ가 [tek͈jəmɡa] 데껴ᇝ가 [tek͈jəmɡa]	데꼄서 [tek͈jəmsə] 데꼄서 [tek͈jəmsə]
바ᇧ /pask/ 바ᇧ /pask/ "outside"	바ᇧ [pat̚] 바ᇧ [pat̚]	밧기 [pat̚k͈i] 밧기 [pat̚k͈i]

Vowels

Jeju traditionally has a nine-vowel system: theeight vowels of Koreanwith the addition of ㆍ/ɒ/,a Middle Korean phoneme lost in Seoul in the eighteenth century.The Jeju-do dialect is known to exhibit more conservative vowel sounds preserving older vowel distinctions, compared to standard Korean.

Vowel phonemes

	Front		Central		Back
Close	ㅣi	/i/	ㅡeu	/ɨ/	ㅜu	/u/
Mid	ㅔe	/e/	ㅓeo	/ə/	ㅗo	/o/
Open	ㅐae	/æ/	ㅏa	/a/	ㆍaw	/ɒ/

The phonemic identity ofㆍis controversial,but native speakers most commonly realize the phoneme as[ɔ]./æ/and/e/are only distinguished in the initial syllable.

Among younger and less fluent speakers,/æ/and/ɒ/have bothraisedto/e/and/o/or/ə/respectively, resulting in a seven-vowel system identical to the vowel inventory of Seoul Korean.The raising of Jeju/æ/occurred before the raising of/ɒ/,and may have predated Standard Korean's ongoing merger of/æ/and/e/.The subsequent loss of/ɒ/may have been motivated by a language-internal desire for symmetry in the vowel system.On the other hand, the vowel mergers are accelerated among Jeju speakers living in coastal communities more exposed to Standard Korean.

Jeju has two or threeglides:/j/,/w/,and possibly/ɰ/./j/can occur with all vowels except/i/and/ɨ/./jæ/and/je/have merged even among speakers who distinguish themonophthongs,and many speakers who retain/ɒ/also merge/jɒ/with/jə/./w/cannot occur with the three back vowels or with/ɨ/./ɰ/occurs only with/i/,and the resulting diphthong/ɰi/is generally realized as[ɨ]word-initially and[i]otherwise.

Glide-vowel sequences may be analyzed asdiphthongs,with the phonemic identities of[j],[w],and[ɰ]being/i/,/o~u/,and/ɨ/respectively.

IPA	Hangul	Example
/je/	ㅖ,ㅒ	예숙제낄락yesukjekkillak	"quiz; riddle"
/ja/	ㅑ	야개기yagaegi	"neck"
/jo/	ㅛ	요레yore	"here; this place"
/ju/	ㅠ	유ᄒᆞᆨyuhawk	"Confucianism"
/jə/	ㅕ	역ᄉᆞyeoksaw	"history"
/jɒ/	ᆢ	ᄋᆢ라yawra	"several"
/wi/	ㅟ	위염wiyeom	"danger"
/we/	ㅞ,ㅙ,ㅚ	웬착wenchak	"left side"
/wa/	ㅘ	와리다warida	"to be in a hurry"
/wə/	ㅝ	월력weollyeok	"calendar"
/ɰi/	ㅢ	의남uinam~eunam	"fog"

Vowel phonological processes

Several phonological processes affect the surface realization of Jeju vowels. In one process shared with Standard Korean, a bisyllabic vowel sequence may be contracted to a monosyllabic polyphthong.

English	Uncontracted Jeju form	Contracted Jeju form
"it was caught"	젭히엇저jepieotjeo	젭혓저jepyeotjeo
"cucumber"	오이oi	웨we

Vowel-affecting processes are particularly numerous in the verbal paradigm. Verb stem-final-euis lost before a vowel-initial suffix.Similar to Standard Korean, a stem-final-idiphthongizes a subsequent vowel by inserting theonglide[j].Unlike in its sister language, Jejuj-insertion may occur even with an intervening consonant,and between a verb stem ending in-e,-ae,or-awand a suffix with initialeo-.

Many of Jeju's consonant-initial verbal suffixes take an initialepentheticvowel if the previous morpheme ends with a consonant.The default epenthetic vowel is-으--eu-/ɨ/,but the vowel surfaces as-이--i-[i]following a sibilant and as-우--u-[u]following an underlying labial.

Vowel shifts in conjugated verbs

English	Underlying morphemes			Surface realization
"is sad, and"	슬프-seulpeu-"to be sad"	-엉-eongCONN		슬펑seulp-eong
"rests, and"	쉬-swi-"to rest"	-엉-eongCONN		쉬영swi-yeong
"was fast"	제-je-"to be fast"	-엇-eosPFV	-어-eoSE	제엿어je-yeos-eo
"mixed with water"	개-gae-"to mix with water"	-엇-eosPFV	-어-eoSE	개엿어gae-yeos-eo
"did"	ᄒᆞhaw-"to do"	-엇-eosPFV	-어-eoSE	ᄒᆞ엿어haw-yeos-eo
"if [it] burns"	카-ka-"to burn"	-민-minCOND		카민ka-min
"if [he] believes"	믿-mid-"to believe"			믿으민mid-eumin
"if [it] is bad"	줏-jus-"to pick"			줏이민jus-imin
"if [he] puts in the soup"	ᄌᆞᆷ-jawm-"to put into soup"			ᄌᆞᆷ우민jawm-umin

Like Standard Korean but unlike Middle Korean,Koreanic vowel harmonyis no longer generally applicable in all native morphemesbut remains productive insound symbolismand certain verbal suffixes. Jeju has two harmonic classes,yin and yang.The neutral vowel/i/can occur with either class.

Harmonic class	Vowel correspondences				Sound symbolism
Yin	ə	u	e	ɨ	Dark; heavy; dull; negative
Yang	a	o	æ	ɒ	Bright; light; sharp; positive
Neutral	i				—

For instance, theperfective aspectmarker-엇-eostakes the vowel harmonicallomorph-앗-asafter verb stems whose (final) vowel is yang:

Yin-class allomorph	Yang-class allomorph
먹엇어meog-eos-eo"ate"	갈앗어gar-as-eo"plowed"
궂엇어guj-eos-eo"was bad"	곱앗어gob-as-eo"hid"
긋엇어geus-eos-eo"drew a line"	ᄃᆞᆯ앗어dawr-as-eo"ran"
싯엇어sis-eos-eo"washed"

In certain cases, suffix allomorphs do not match the harmonic class of the previous vowel. Verb stems with final vowel/u/or/ɨ/take the yang allomorph if their Middle Korean forms were/ɒ/,thus conserving their original harmonic class while violating their current one. Disyllabic stems that end in-ualso take the yang allomorph, but monosyllabic-ustems or disyllabic-uCstems do not.

Phonotactics

Jeju syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C) with G being a glide.

Syllable structure	Jeju	IPA
V	이i"this"	[i]
CV	따tta"earth"	[t͈a]
GV (or VV)	웨we"cause; principle"	[we]
CGV (or CVV)	쉬swi"filling" [for dumplings, etc.]	[swi]
VC	알al"egg"	[al]
CVC	ᄀᆞᆺkawt"edge"	[kɔt̚]
GVC (or VVC)	윳yut"neighbor"	[jut̚]
CGVC (or CVVC)	광kwang"lunatic"	[kwaŋ]

As in Standard Korean,ng-/ŋ/cannot occur syllable-initially, andl-/l/does not occur word-initially in native words.

Prosody

Jeju does not have phonemicvowel length,stress,ortone.Itsphonological hierarchyis characterized by accentual phrases similar to those of Standard Korean, with a basic Low-High-Low-High tonal pattern varying according tosentence type,but there are also important differences in the two languages' prosody.Jeju has a weaker tonal distinction within the first half of the accentual phrase than Seoul Korean does, while its aspirate consonants do not produce as significant a high pitch as their Seoul equivalents.Jeju uses morecontour tones,where the pitch shifts within a single syllable, than Seoul Korean.Unlike in Seoul Korean, older and fluent speakers of Jeju will also lengthen the final vowel of both clauses inalternative questions.

Grammar

ORD: ordinal numeral INTR: interrogative MED: medial demonstrative SE: sentence ender CE: canonical ending REP: reportive NPST: nonpast

Jeju istypologicallysimilar to Korean, both beinghead-finalagglutinativelanguages.However, the two languages show significant differences in the verbal paradigm, such as Jeju's use of a dedicated conditional suffix.

Nouns

Jeju nouns may be a singlemorpheme,acompoundof multiple nouns, or a base noun with a merged attributive verb, or form throughderivationalaffixes attached to nouns or verb stems.In compound nouns that include a native morpheme, the phoneme-s-may intervene between the two elements.Because this "in-betweens"appears only after a vowel and before a consonant, it is never realized as[s]but almost always surfaces as[t̚].

• Single-morpheme noun:쉐swe"cattle"
• Noun compound:

쉐

swe

"cattle"

+

궤기

gwegi

"meat"

→

쉐궤기

swe-gwegi

"beef"

쉐 + 궤기 → 쉐궤기

swe {} gwegi {} swe-gwegi

"cattle" {} "meat" {} "beef"

• Noun compound with-s-:

다리

dari

"leg"

+

빙

bing

"illness"

→

다릿빙

dari-t-bing

"leg illness"

다리 + 빙 → 다릿빙

dari {} bing {} dari-t-bing

"leg" {} "illness" {} { "leg illness" }

• Noun with merged attributive verb:

앚-

aj-

"to sit"

+

일

il

"work"

→

앚인일

aj-in-il

"work done while sitting"

앚- + 일 → 앚인일

aj- {} il {} aj-in-il

{ "to sit" } {} "work" {} { "work done while sitting" }

• Noun derived from noun through affix:

ᄌᆞᆷ

jawm

"sleep"

→

ᄌᆞᆷ주시

jawm-jusi

"sleepyhead"

ᄌᆞᆷ → ᄌᆞᆷ주시

jawm {} jawm-jusi

"sleep" {} "sleepyhead"

• Noun derived from verb through affix:

먹-

meog-

"to eat"

→

먹쉬

meog-swi

"glutton"

먹- → 먹쉬

meog- {} meog-swi

{ "to eat" } {} "glutton"

• Verbal noun:

ᄃᆞᆺ-

daws-

"to be warm"

→

ᄃᆞᆺ임

daws-im

"warmth"

ᄃᆞᆺ- → ᄃᆞᆺ임

daws- {} daws-im

{ "to be warm" } {} "warmth"

(Examples from Yang C., Yang S, and O'Grady 2019 and Ko J. 2011a)

Some Jeju nouns are bound nouns, meaning that they cannot appear independently without a noun phrase.The example below features the bound noun침chim"worth" accompanied by the obligatory attributive verb.

볼

bo-l

see-FUT.ATTR

침

chim

worth

읏저

eus-jeo

not.be-DEC

볼침읏저

bo-lchimeus-jeo

see-FUT.ATTRworthnot.be-DEC

"hardly worth seeing"

Jeju has two suffi xing plural markers, which are obligatory for plural nouns accompanied bydeterminersand optional otherwise. The plural marker-덜-deolcan occur with all nouns and pronouns. The marker-네-neis restricted for humans and pronouns, and can also have an associative meaning: e.g.만수네Mansu-ne"Mansu and his family" (lit. 'Mansu and his associates'). The combined sequence-네덜-ne-deolis sometimes also used.

Nouns accompanied bynumeralsusually take a variety ofclassifiers,such as재jaefor counting trees and곡지gokjifor counting songs. Classifiers forcardinalsare unmarked, but those forordinalsare followed by the ordinal-marking체che.

낭

nang

tree

ᄒᆞᆫ

hawn

one

재

jae

CLF

낭 ᄒᆞᆫ재

nang hawnjae

tree one CLF

"one tree"

낭

nang

tree

두

du

two

재

jae

CLF

체

che

ORD

낭 두재체

nang dujaeche

tree two CLF ORD

"the second tree"

Noun particles

Jeju marksnoun caseand other semantic relations through suffi xingnoun particles.Particles that mark the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases are very frequently omitted.The table below is not exhaustive and lists only some of the most significant particles.

Function	Particle	Allomorphyand variants	Example	Usage notes
Nominative	이 -i	After vowel:가-ga	할망이 halmang-i ᄀᆞᆯ안야? gawr-an-ya 할망이ᄀᆞᆯ안야? halmang-igawr-an-ya "Did grandmother say that?"	Does not appear in thecomplement,unlike in Standard Korean.Cannot be topicalized.
Accusative	을 -(eu)l	Rare, formal post-vowel form:를-reul	시리레 siri-re ᄀᆞ를 gawreu-l 담으라. dam-eura 시리레 ᄀᆞ를 담으라. siri-re gawreu-ldam-eura "Put the flour into the steamer."	Unlike in Korean, can be followed by other particles, e.g.늘광neu-l-gwang2SG-ACC-COM"with you".
Genitive	이/의 -i	—	집이 jib-i 밧은 bas-eun 어듸 eodui 잇어? is-eo 집이밧은 어듸 잇어? jib-ibas-eun eodui is-eo "Where is your family'sfield? "	-iis rare, but required when the subsequentnoun phrasebegins with an adnominal clause.
	ㅅ -s		산 san 읫 ui-t 낭 nang 산 읫 낭 san ui-tnang "the trees on the mountain"	Called "pseudo-genitive" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019.Appears in certain compounds, as mentioned above. May also follow a locative marker to attribute a noun.
Dative	ᄀᆞ라 -gawra		가의ᄀᆞ라 gaui-gawra 공븨ᄒᆞ렌 gongbui-haw-ren ᄒᆞᆸ서. haw-b-seo 가의ᄀᆞ라공븨ᄒᆞ렌 ᄒᆞᆸ서. gaui-gawragongbui-haw-ren haw-b-seo "Please tell him to study."	Restricted to human addressees of verbs of speaking.
	신디 -sindi		그 geu 사름신디 sareum-sindi ᄀᆞᆯ읍디가? gawr-eup-di-ga 그 사름신디ᄀᆞᆯ읍디가? geu sareum-sindigawr-eup-di-ga "Did you talktothat person? "	May be used with the verb싯다sitda"to exist" to form possessive constructions, with the dative marking the possessor. May also be suffixed with theallativeparticle-reto give further emphasis and a connotation of movement, or with the locative particle-seoto express anablativemeaning.
	안티 -anti	Due to interference from Korean cognate한테-hante:한티-hanti,안테-ante	느안티 neu-anti 주마. ju-ma 느안티주마. neu-antiju-ma "I will give [it]toyou. "
	아피 -api	—	누게아피 nuge-api 줍디가? ju-p-di-ga 누게아피줍디가? nuge-apiju-p-di-ga "Towhom did you give [it]? "
Topic-marking	은 -(eu)n	Rarely, after vowel:는-neun	오널은 oneor-eun 궹일날이우다. gwengilnal-i-u-da 오널은궹일날이우다. oneor-eungwengilnal-i-u-da "Today is Sunday."	Either introduces a new topic or establishes a contrast. Must have a contrastive meaning sentence-internally.
	(이)랑 -(i)rang	—	하르방이랑 hareubang-irang 저레 jeo-re 앚입서. aj-ib-seo 하르방이랑저레 앚입서. hareubang-irangjeo-re aj-ib-seo "Grandfather [and not anyone else], sit there."	Contrastive meaning only.
	(이)라근 -(i)rageun	Also used:(이)라근에-(i)rageune	느라근 neu-rageun 집이 jib-i 가라. ga-ra. 느라근집이 가라. neu-rageunjib-i ga-ra. "You [and not anyone else], go home."
Location-related	이/의 -i	After-iand possibly-l:에-e Occasionally after any vowel:예-ye	성 seong 바당의 badang-i 셔? sy-eo 성 바당의셔? seong badang-isy-eo "Is my older siblingatthe sea? "	Refers to location forstative verbsand direction fordynamic verbs;may also refer to time. According to Kim Jee-hong 2015,-(y)eis not an allomorph but a different locative morpheme used for clearlyboundedspaces, such as tables or containers.
	(이)서/(의)서 -(i)seo	Post-vowel form-seosometimes occurs after consonant.	ᄒᆞᆨ게서 hawkge-seo 공븨ᄒᆞ게. gongbui-haw-ge ᄒᆞᆨ게서공븨ᄒᆞ게. hawkge-seogongbui-haw-ge "Let's studyatschool. "	Refers to location for action verbs.
	디, 디서 -di, -diseo	—	밧디 bat-di 밧디 bat-di "Inthe field "	Variants of-i,-iseoused to emphasize the boundedness of the referent. Analyzed by Yang S., Yang C., and O'Grady 2019 not as a separate morpheme but as a bound noun meaning "place," juxtaposed with the locational noun.
	(드)레 -(deu)re	After liquid consonant-land sometimes after vowel:르레/러레-leure/leore Initial syllabledeu-also found asdeo-,teu-,ti-,di-,de-,orri-	이착드레 i-chak-deure 비와불라. biw-a-bul-la 이착드레비와불라. i-chak-deurebiw-a-bul-la "Pour [it]tothis side. "	Denotes direction of movement, like English "to; into; toward." Moon S. and Kim W. 2017 analyzes레-reand드레-deureas distinct particles, with-rehaving a solely directional meaning while-deuresimultaneously emphasizes both the direction and the location of the direction's destination.Most sources treat the two as allomorphs, especially when appended to nouns.
Comitativeand conjunctive	(이)영 -(i)yeong	—	가읜 gaui-n 어멍이영 eomeong-iyeong ᄉᆞ답ᄒᆞ염ㅅ우게. sawdab-haw-yeoms-u-ge 가읜 어멍이영 ᄉᆞ답ᄒᆞ염ㅅ우게. gaui-n eomeong-iyeongsawdab-haw-yeoms-u-ge "S/he is doing the laundrywithhis/her mom. "	Kim Jee-hong 2015 notes: "These case markers only have differences of connotation, and may be interchangeably used without the least change in meaning." Like in Middle Korean but unlike in Modern Seoul Korean, comitative markers may occur on the final element being linked and also take other case markers. 책광 chaek-gwang book-COM 가방광을 gabang-gwang-eul bag-COM-ACC 주다 ju-da give-SE 책광 가방광을주다 chaek-gwang gabang-gwang-eulju-da book-COM bag-COM-ACC give-SE "Give books and bags"
	왕/광 -(g)wang		지슬광 jiseul-gwang ᄃᆞᆨ세기 dawksegi 지슬광 ᄃᆞᆨ세기 jiseul-gwangdawksegi "potatoesandeggs "
	ᄒᆞ곡 -hawgok	Also used:ᄒᆞ고-hawgo	낭ᄒᆞ고 nang-hawgok 고장 gojang ᄒᆞᄊᆞᆯ hawsseul 싱그라. singgeu-ra 낭ᄒᆞ고 고장 ᄒᆞᄊᆞᆯ 싱그라. nang-hawgokgojang hawsseul singgeu-ra "Please plant some treesandflowers. "

Verbs

The Jeju verb consists of a root that is followed by suffixes that provide grammatical information such asvoice,tense, aspect, mood,evidentiality,relative social status,and the formality of the utterance. Jeju verbs include not only action verbs familiar to English speakers such as먹다meokda"to eat" or베리다berida"to see," but also adjectival verbs such as버치다beochida"to be heavy" or훍다hultta"to be thick."Verbs can takederivationalsuffixes to formadverbsand nouns.

• ᄇᆞ디-bawdi-"to be close"→ᄇᆞ디게bawdi-ge"closely"
• 궂-guj-"to be bad" →궂임guj-im"badness"
• 입-ib-"to wear" →입기ip-gi"wearing"

Especially forwh-questionsand exclamations, Jeju speakers commonly use a verbal noun in place of a verb inflected for tense-aspect-mood.

날도

nal-do

day-even

영

yeong

like.this

ᄃᆞᆺ임광!

daws-im-gwang

warm-NMLZ-COM

날도 영 ᄃᆞᆺ임광!

nal-do yeong daws-im-gwang

day-even like.this warm-NMLZ-COM

"What a warm day!" (lit. 'With the warmth of even the day like this!')

Verbs may also be given anattributivemeaning through one of four adnominal suffixes.

• Adnominal suffix은-(eu)n:Past event for action verbs, achieved state for adjectival verbs

나가

na-ga

탄

ta-n

미깡

mikkang

나가 탄 미깡

na-ga ta-nmikkang

"The tangerine that I picked"

ᄃᆞᆺ인

daws-in

구들

gudeul

ᄃᆞᆺ인구들

daws-ingudeul

"The [already] warm room"

• Adnominal suffix단-dan:Habitual action in the past

뎅기단

denggi-dan

웃드르

utdeureu

뎅기단웃드르

denggi-danutdeureu

"The mountain villages that we used to go to"

ᄃᆞᆺ단

daws-dan

구들

gudeul

ᄃᆞᆺ단구들

daws-dangudeul

"The room that used to be warm"

• Adnominal suffix(으)는-(eu)neun:Nonpast/present event or state, commonlyhabitual;cannot occur with other suffixes and must combine directly with the bare verb stem;can occur with adjectival verbs, unlike in Korean

아는

a-neun

예청

yecheong

아는예청

a-neunyecheong

"The woman who I know"

ᄃᆞᆺ이는

daws-ineun

구들

gudeul

ᄃᆞᆺ이는구들

daws-ineungudeul

"The [usually] warm room"

• Adnominal suffix을-(eu)l:Future/conjectural event or state

ᄐᆞᆮ을

tawd-eul

ᄉᆞᆼ키

sawngki

ᄐᆞᆮ을ᄉᆞᆼ키

tawd-eulsawngki

"Vegetables that s/he will pluck"

Pre-final suffixes

Jeju has a number of pre-final verbal suffixes:tense-aspect-moodmarkers which follow the verb stem but cannot appear at the end of the inflected verb.The exact number of these suffixes is unclear because scholars disagree on the correct morphologicalsegmentation.One analysis of the suffix paradigm, as presented in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, is given below.

There is relatively widespread agreement on the existence of the following four discrete TAM morphemes, presented in the order they co-occur: thecontinuative aspectmarker어ᇝ-eoms,theperfective aspectmarker엇-eos,theprospective moodmarker읔-(eu)k,and therealis moodmarker(으)느-(eu)neu.Depending on the analysis of theaforementionedepenthetical vowels that precede many verbal suffixes, the base forms of the three morphemes may alternately be analyzed as엄시-eomsi,어시-eosi,크-keu,and느-neu.

-eoms(i)is animperfectiveorcontinuative aspectparticle, referring to a process perceived as ongoing and similar to the English construction "be VERB-ing."With an adjectival verb, it has aninchoative( "beginning to; become" ) meaning. A verb with-eoms(i)is interpreted as either present or future by default,and some analyses interpret the particle as also conveying the present tense for specific events and states.The suffix has a vowel-harmonic variant-ams(i),as well as allomorphs-yeoms(i),-yams(i),and-ms(i)when following certain vowels.

ᄀᆞᆯ개비

gawlgaebi

frog

ᄎᆞᆽ아ᇝ어.

chawj-ams-eo

search-CONT-SE

ᄀᆞᆯ개비 ᄎᆞᆽ아ᇝ어.

gawlgaebi chawj-ams-eo

frog search-CONT-SE

"S/he is looking for the frog."

짚어ᇝ저.

jip-eoms-jeo

be.deep-CONT-SE

짚어ᇝ저.

jip-eoms-jeo

be.deep-CONT-SE

"It is becoming deep."

Often characterized as aperfective aspectmarker,-eos(i)has also been described as apresent perfectmarkerand as behaving as a perfective marker with some verbs and as a past tense marker with others.-eos(i)can express non-past events in certain constructions that call for verbs "conceptualized in their entirety," such as a hypothetical future event. In adjectival verbs, it may also refer to a current state that contrasts with a past situation.-eos(i)can also be doubled for ahabitualor apast perfectinterpretation.Also like-eoms,this suffix takes the vowel-harmonic variant-as(i)and has allomorphs-yeos(i),-yas(i),and-s(i)after certain vowels.

지슬

jiseul

potato

팟저.

pa-t-jeo

dig-PFV-SE

지슬 팟저.

jiseul pa-t-jeo

potato dig-PFV-SE

"S/he dug potatoes."

날

nal

day

막

mak

very

얼엇저.

eor-eot-jeo

be.cold-PFV-SE

날 막 얼엇저.

nal mak eor-eot-jeo

day very be.cold-PFV-SE

"It is very cold [compared to before]."

The prospective mood marker읔/으크-(eu)k/(eu)keumarks the subject'sintentionin first-person-subject declarative sentences or second-person-subject interrogative sentences, and the speaker's conjecture otherwise.-(eu)kmay also have a future-tense interpretation.

ᄂᆞᆷ삐

nawmppi

radish

데끼켜.

dekki-k-yeo

throw-PROSP-SE

ᄂᆞᆷ삐 데끼켜.

nawmppi dekki-k-yeo

radish throw-PROSP-SE

"I will throw away the radish."

가이

gai

3SG

지레가

jire-ga

height-NOM

크클아.

keu-k-eur-a

grow-PROSP-FUT-SE

가이 지레가 크클아.

gai jire-ga keu-k-eur-a

3SG height-NOM grow-PROSP-FUT-SE

"It seems that s/he will grow tall."

-(eu)kcan only be followed by a small number of suffixes in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's analysis.Some analyses treat the initial vowel of the following suffix as part of an allomorph or nuanced variant of-(eu)k,so that가커라gakeora"[I] will go" may be segmented asga-k-eoraorga-keo-ra.

Therealisorindicative moodmarker(으)느-(eu)neuindicates "a fact or habitual action in the nonpast"which the speaker perceives to be true in general, permanently, or over a longer duration of time, as demonstrated in the contrast below.The putative non-past-tense marker-(eu)nmay also be analyzed as an allomorph of-(eu)neu.In this context, the morpheme-(eu)n(eu)has also been interpreted as aperfectmarker (not to be confused with the perfective marker).

이

i

this

신

sin

shoe

느안티

neu-anti

2SG-DAT

크냐?

keu-nya

be.big-INTR

이 신 느안티 크냐?

i sin neu-anti keu-nya

this shoe 2SG-DAT be.big-INTR

"Is this shoe [too] big for you [right now]?"

이

i

this

신

sin

shoe

느안티

neu-anti

2SG-DAT

크느냐?

keu-neu-nya

be.big-IND-INTR

이 신 느안티 크느냐?

i sin neu-anti keu-neu-nya

this shoe 2SG-DAT be.big-IND-INTR

"Has this shoe [always] been [too] big for you?"

The existence of the Korean subject-honorificmarker(으)시-(eu)siis controversial for Jeju, with some scholars arguing that it was entirely absent and others that it was restricted to higherregisters.Ko J. 2011b notes that it was used only "by officials while referring to people of very high status and by theseonbiof the educated classes. "

Segmenting verb-final suffixes

The segmentation of verb-final elements is controversial. The two recent extensive treatments of the topic, Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019and Kim Jee-hong 2015,give incompatible analyses of the suffix paradigm.

Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 includes a slot fortensein the Jeju verb, with three dedicated markers.

• Non-past tense:은-(eu)n
• Past tense:언-eon,with vowel-harmonic allomorph안-an
• Future tense:을-(eu)l

They further divide verb-final suffixes into three categories: Type 1, which cannot occur with tense markers; Type 2, which must occur with either a tense marker or the aspect marker-eoms,which loses its underlying-sbefore a Type 2 suffix; and a mixed type, which can occur with the non-past marker but not with the other two tense markers. The vast majority of suffixes are categorized as Tense 1 and thus cannot follow a tense marker.Uniquely among pre-final suffixes, the past tense marker-eoncan also appear without a final suffix.

Examples of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation are given below.

Aspect + Type 1 sequence		Tense + Type 2 sequence
지슬 jiseul potato ᄆᆞᆫ mawn all 데꼇어라. dekky-eos-eora throw-PFV-SE 지슬 ᄆᆞᆫ 데꼇어라. jiseul mawn dekky-eos-eora potato all throw-PFV-SE "[I noticed that he/she] had thrown away all the potatoes."		파치 pachi fallen.tangerines 잘 jal well 줏언게. jus-eon-ge pick-PST-SE 파치 잘 줏언게. pachi jal jus-eon-ge fallen.tangerines well pick-PST-SE "[I saw him/her] pick tangerines well."

In Kim Jee-hong's analysis, verb-final single morphemes are termed "canonical endings." Canonical endings are contrasted with a wide variety of "non-canonical endings," formed by the fusion of various grammatical elements such as multiple canonical endings, truncated conjunctive and embedded sentences, and bound nounsconnected to the verb stem or a canonical ending via an attributive or a nominalizer.The most common canonical component of these non-canonical endings is the suffix어-eo(vowel-harmonic allomorph아-a), which Kim calls theunmarked"default ending."

Since Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's tenses align with the aforementioned attributive suffixes,sentences they analyze as "Tense-Type 2 Suffix" sequences are often analyzed as non-canonical endings with a "Canonical ending-Attributive-Bound noun" composition by Kim Jee-hong. Many of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's Type 1 suffixes are also interpreted as polymorphemic non-canonical endings. Kim Jee-hong also segments some of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's mixed-type suffixes so that the base form of the suffix includes the-nof the latter's non-past tense marker.

Examples from Kim Jee-hong 2015's analysis, directly corresponding to the examples above of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, are given below. The "default ender"-eois bolded.

그

geu

MED

낭

nang

tree

다

da

all

컷어라.

k-eos-eo-ra

grow-PFV-CE-CE

그 낭 다 컷어라.

geu nang da k-eos-eo-ra

MED tree all grow-PFV-CE-CE

"[I noticed that] that tree had fully grown."

지금도

jigeum-do

now-too

고완게.

gow-a-n-ge

be.pretty-CE-ATTR-thing

지금도 고완게.

jigeum-do gow-a-n-ge

now-too be.pretty-CE-ATTR-thing

"[I saw that s/he] was still pretty."

Sentence enders

Jeju has a number of clause-final suffixes, called "sentence enders" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019and "terminal suffixes" (종결어미;jonggyeol eomi) in Korean,that provide information such as degree of formality, social status, evidentality, and modality.Sentence enders may consist of one or multiple morphemes.Kim Jee-hong argues for fourspeech levelsin Jeju, defined by the degree of formality and deference their sentence enders connote: informal and plain (non-honorific); formal and plain; informal and honorific, marked by the morpheme우-u-,and formal and honorific, featuring the morpheme읍-eup.An archaic speech level showing extreme deference is attested from shamanic chants.

As different segmentation hypotheses produce different sentence enders. the chart below will list only a small, illustrative sample of the dozens of suffixes that appear in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-h. 2015. The classification is based on Kim Jee-hong 2017,which differs from Kim Jee-hong 2015.

Informal and plain

Morpheme		Example	Usage	Sources
어/아	-eo/a	가이 gai 고와? gow-a 가이 고와? gai gow-a "Is s/he pretty?"	Kim Jee-hong considers-eotheunmarkedsentence ender. Depending onsuprasegmentals,the suffix may be used in a plain statement, a question, a command, an exclamation, or a construction in which the speaker informs the addressee of information that the latter did not know and expects a confirmatory response. The suffix is also found in Standard Korean with a similar degree of versatility and widespread use.
(으)주	-(eu)ju	만수 Mansu 말 mal 잘 jal ᄀᆞᆮ주. gawd-ju 만수 말 잘 ᄀᆞᆮ주. Mansu mal jal gawd-ju "Mansu talks well."	According to Kim Jee-hong,-juconveys a statement of presumption or assumption without direct supporting experience, and invites the addressee to confirm the statement's veracity. Kim also states that-jumay end a confirmatory question with the implication that the addressee should agree with the speaker. According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady,-juexpresses a statement of intention or strong assertion with a first-person subject and a statement of judgement or assumption with a third-person subject, and may also convey regret or advice.
(은)게	(-eun)-ge	날 nal 우쳣인게. uchy-eos-i(-)n-ge 날 우쳣인게. nal uchy-eos-i(-)n-ge "[I see that] the day was cloudy."	(-eun)-gegenerally conveys a statement of fact that the speaker has directly observed, or has inferred from a direct observation. In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, the suffix is given as-ge,a special Type 2 suffix which can only combine with the two tense markers ending in-n.Kim Jee-hong classifies it as a non-canonical ending composed of a fused attributive-eunand bound noun.
(으)멘	(-eu)men	느 neu 무시거 musigeo 시치멘? sichi-men 느 무시거 시치멘? neu musigeo sichi-men "What are you washing?"	(-eu)menis used for both statements and questions, but only when the speaker and addressee are emotionally intimate. When the verb is inflected for aspect,(-eu)menis used to refer to a past event that was observed or inferred from observation. If uninflected, the suffix denotes an ongoing event.

Formal and plain

Morpheme		Example	Usage	Sources
다	-da	도새기 dosaegi 것 geot 먹엇다. meog-eot-da 도새기 것 먹엇다. dosaegi geot meog-eot-da "The pig ate the fodder."	Unmarked formal statement ender. Dictionary citation form.
(으)저	-(eu)jeo	하르방 hareubang 몸 mom ᄀᆞᆷ앗저. gawm-at-jeo 하르방 몸 ᄀᆞᆷ앗저. hareubang mom gawm-at-jeo "Grandfather took a bath."	-jeoexpresses a factual statement with the premise that the addressee is unaware of the fact, and may implicitly either urge the addressee to accept this new information or rebuke the addressee for not having known it. With a first-person subject,-jeoconveys the speaker's intention to do something. Whether these two uses of-jeoare connected uses of the same morpheme, or whether they are two differenthomophonousmorphemes, is disputed.
나	-na	이 i this 풀 pul plant 사름덜이 sareum-deor-i person-PL-NOM 먹나. meong-na eat-na 이 풀 사름덜이 먹나. i pul sareum-deor-i meong-na this plant person-PL-NOM eat-na "This plant is edible."	Expresses a statement of fact with the implication that it is an intrinsic or permanent quality or state; commonly found with proverbs and aphorisms.-nais also used to ask questions about facts (including non-permanent facts), where it has a "somewhat authoritative tone." As with-jeo,whether these two uses reflect the same morpheme or two homophonous ones is disputed.
고나	-gona	이디 i-di 물 mul 새라낫고나! saer-a-na-t-gona 이디 물 새라낫고나! i-di mul saer-a-na-t-gona "The water had leaked here!"	Expresses a statement of surprise or excitement. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 gives the suffix as구나-gunainstead. Kim Jee-hong reports that the suffix can be shortened to a single syllable고-go.
가 은가	-ga (-eu)n-ga	그듸 geu-di 무사 musa ᄃᆞᆺ앗인가? daws-as-i(-)n-ga 그듸 무사 ᄃᆞᆺ앗인가? geu-di musa daws-as-i(-)n-ga "Why is that place warm?"	Conveys a question directed to the addressee. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffixes as Type 2 ender-ga,with-n-ganot a genuine ending but-gafollowing a tense marker ending in-n.Kim Jee-hong distinguishes the canonical ending-gawith the non-canonical-eun-ga,which is analyzed as having a fused attributive.
은고	(-eu)n-go	선싕 seonsing 무시거 musigeo 테왓인고? tew-as-i(-)n-go 선싕 무시거 테왓인고? seonsing musigeo tew-as-i(-)n-go "I wonder what the teacher distributed."	Has a conjectural connotation. Often used in questions addressed to oneself, and is less direct than-eun-gawhen asked to the addressee. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffix as mixed type ender-go,with-eun-gobeing-gopreceded by the non-past tense marker (and gaining this conjectural meaning only in the presence of the non-past tense marker). Kim Jee-hong analyzes it as a non-canonical ending with a fused attributive.
디아	-dia	는 neu-n 무사 musa 얼언디아? eor-eo(-)n-dia 는 무사 얼언디아? neu-n musa eor-eo(-)n-dia "Why are you cold?"	Used to ask a question about which the addressee has direct relevant experience. In most cases the addressee is the subject of the verb, although third-person subjects have been attested. Appears in Kim Jee-hong's work in the contracted form댜-dya.
(으)게	-(eu)ge	먹엇이게! meog-eos-i(-)ge 먹엇이게! meog-eos-i(-)ge "Let's get finished eating!"	Used in propositions (not commands as in Standard Korean).
(으)라	-(eu)ra	먹으라! meog-eura 먹으라! meog-eura "Eat!"	Used to command immediate action.
(으)심 (으)순	-(eu)sim -(eu)sun	ᄌᆞ미나게 jawmi-na-ge 놀순! nol-sun ᄌᆞ미나게 놀순! jawmi-na-ge nol-sun "Have fun!"	Used by older women when talking to younger adults not old enough for honorifics and not young or emotionally close enough for informal speech. May convey statements, questions, requests, and proposals.

The honorific verbs, which show deference to the addressee, are formed by a special suffix that can be followed only by a small number of sentence enders.

The informal honorific forms are marked by우-u-or(으)우-(eu)u-.The former is used with thecopulaverb이다idaand with all inflected verbs, and the latter is used with uninflected adjectival verbs.-u-and-(eu)u-may take the alternative form수-su-after a verb inflected for aspect and a non-liquid consonant, respectively.The informal honorific form cannot occur with uninflected action verbs.The two suffixes may only be followed by the sentence enders in the table below.Informal honorific requests cannot be formed morphologically.

Honorific	Sentence ender	Example	Usage
(으)우-(eu)u-	다-da	물 mul 질엇우다. jil-eos-u-da 물 질엇우다. mul jil-eos-u-da "S/he drew water."	Used for statements.
	게-ge 궤-gwe	ᄎᆞᆯ레 chawlle 멩글앗우게. menggeul-as-u-ge ᄎᆞᆯ레 멩글앗우게. chawlle menggeul-as-u-ge "I have made side dishes."	Used to report new information; restricted to inflected verbs.
	꿰-kkwe	짚우우꿰. jip-uu-kkwe 짚우우꿰. jip-uu-kkwe "It is deep."	Used to report new information or an opinion; restricted to uninflected verbs.
	가/강-ga(ng) 과/광-gwa(ng) 꽈/꽝-kkwa(ng)	ᄃᆞᆨ세기 dawk-segi 데끼쿠과? dekki-k-u-gwa ᄃᆞᆨ세기 데끼쿠과? dawk-segi dekki-k-u-gwa "Will you throw away the eggs?"	Used in questions.-gwa(ng)is generally restricted to inflected verbs. Due tosound symbolism,the tense endings are considered emphatic.

The formal honorific forms involve the honorific marker읍-(eu)p-followed by one or two morphemes. Only the six following formal honorific forms are possible.

Honorific	Evidential	Sentence ender	Example	Usage
읍-(eu)p-	네/니-ne/ni	다-da	그 geu 신 sin 만수신디 Mansu-sindi 족읍네다. jog-eup-ne-da 그 신 만수신디 족읍네다. geu sin Mansu-sindi jog-eup-ne-da "[I know] those shoes must be small for Mansu."	A formal statement founded on prior knowledge, e.g. of Mansu's foot size. Implies that the rationale for the statement continues in the present and may be shared or experienced by the addressee.
		까/깡-kka(ng)	나가 na-ga ᄆᆞᆫ처 mawncheo 앚입네까? aj-ip-ne-kka 나가 ᄆᆞᆫ처 앚입네까? na-ga mawncheo aj-ip-ne-kka "Should I sit first?"	A formal question that the addressee is expected to be able to answer without direct observation.
	데/디-de/di	다-da	그 geu 신 sin 만수신디 Mansu-sindi 족읍데다. jog-eup-de-da 그 신 만수신디 족읍데다. geu sin Mansu-sindi jog-eup-de-da "[I saw] those shoes were small for Mansu."	A formal statement motivated by a direct, external past observation that cannot be experienced firsthand by the addressee. As the observation must be external, the first-person singular subject is prohibited except in highly atypical situations such asdissociation.
		가/강-ga(ng)	날이 nal-i 얼큽디가? eol-k(-)eu(-)p-di-ga 날이 얼큽디가? nal-i eol-k(-)eu(-)p-di-ga "[Based on your observation,] will the day be cold?"	A formal question that the addressee is expected to answer based on a past observation relating to a third party.
	—	서-seo	이거 i-geo 먹읍서. meog-eup-seo 이거 먹읍서. i-geo meog-eup-seo "Please eat this."	A formal request.
		주-ju	지슬 jiseul 줏입주. jus-ip-ju 지슬 줏입주. jiseul jus-ip-ju "Let's gather the potatoes."	Expresses speaker's intention with a first-person subject and advice or judgment otherwise; widely used for suggestions and propositions.

Connectives

Jeju uses an array of verb-final connective suffixes to link clauses within sentences,much as English does withconjunctionssuch asand,or,that,but,andbecause.

Some Jeju connectives, such as the suffixes언/엉-eon/eong"and", occur in pairs with one variant ending in-nand the other in-ng.Hong Chong-rim and Song Sang-jo both note that the choice between-nand-ngis often determined by the inflections of the subsequent clause; certain pre-final suffixes and sentence enders require an-connective in the previous clause, while others require ang-connective.Hong suggests that-nis used for specific and objective events and states, while-ngimplies a general and subjective event or state.Song argues that-nis used for completed or achieved verbs, and-ngfor incomplete or unachieved verbs.The nuances below are thus possible.

먹언

meog-eon

eat-CONN

가민

ga-min

go-COND

먹언가민

meog-eonga-min

eat-CONN go-COND

"Having eaten, if [I] go"

먹엉

meog-eong

eat-CONN

가민

ga-min

go-COND

먹엉가민

meog-eongga-min

eat-CONN go-COND

"If [I] eat and [then] go"

오늘

oneul

today

비

bi

rain

오란

o-ran

come-CONN

일

il

work

못

mot

cannot

ᄒᆞᆫ다

haw-n-da

do-NPST-SE

오늘 비 오란일 못 ᄒᆞᆫ다

oneul bi o-ranil mot haw-n-da

today rain come-CONN work cannot do-NPST-SE

"It's raining, so [we] can't work"

오늘

oneul

today

비

bi

rain

오랑

o-rang

come-CONN

일

il

work

못

mot

cannot

ᄒᆞᆫ다

haw-n-da

do-NPST-SE

오늘 비 오랑일 못 ᄒᆞᆫ다

oneul bi o-rangil mot haw-n-da

today rain come-CONN work cannot do-NPST-SE

"[I presume that] it's raining/going to rain, so [we] can't work"

The distinction between-nand-ngdoes not exist in mainland Koreanvarieties.Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 reports that "the contrast between-eongand-eonappears to be disappearing, and the distinctions that remain are subtle and variable. "

An important class of connectives, used for reporting speech and thoughts, is formed by the suffix엔/엥-en/-eng,which fuses with sentence enders as in the example of-dabelow.

"가ᇝ우다."

ga-ms-su-da

go-CONT-HON-SE

"가ᇝ우다."

ga-ms-su-da

go-CONT-HON-SE

"'I am going.'"

가ᇝ덴

ga-ms-den

go-CONT-REP

ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

gawr-at-su-da

say-PFV-HON-SE

가ᇝ덴ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

ga-ms-dengawr-at-su-da

go-CONT-REP say-PFV-HON-SE

"[S/he] said that [s/he] was going."

Similarly, informal honorific conjecturalk-u-dabecomes켄-ken;plain forms-juand-jeobecome젠-jen;question enders-gaand-gobecome겐-genand곤-gon;honorific imperative-eup-seobecomes읍센-eup-sen;and so forth.These fused suffixes may be used for bothquotativeandreportivepurposes. In Standard Korean, indirect speech is strictly distinguished from the quotative by the removal of addressee honorifics and the switching of pronouns. In Jeju, the lines between direct and indirect speech are more blurred. All four forms below—given in order of increasing indirectness—are in use, and have the same meaning, "He said [to a superior] that he was going home."

"난

na-n

1SG-TOP

집이

jib-i

house-LOC

가ᇝ우다 "엔

ga-ms-u-da-en

go-CONT-HON-SE-QUOT

ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

gawr-at-su-da

say-PFV-HON-SE

[direct quote]

"난 집이 가ᇝ우다" 엔 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

na-n jib-i ga-ms-u-da-en gawr-at-su-da

1SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-SE-QUOT say-PFV-HON-SE

난

na-n

1SG-TOP

집이

jib-i

house-LOC

가ᇝ우덴

ga-ms-u-den

go-CONT-HON-REP

ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

gawr-at-su-da

say-PFV-HON-SE

[quotative fused]

난 집이 가ᇝ우덴ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

na-n jib-i ga-ms-u-dengawr-at-su-da

1SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-REP say-PFV-HON-SE

진

ji-n

3SG-TOP

집이

jib-i

house-LOC

가ᇝ우덴

ga-ms-u-den

go-CONT-HON-REP

ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

gawr-at-su-da

say-PFV-HON-SE

[pronouns changed]

진집이 가ᇝ우덴 ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

ji-n jib-i ga-ms-u-den gawr-at-su-da

3SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-HON-REP say-PFV-HON-SE

진

ji-n

3SG-TOP

집이

jib-i

house-LOC

가ᇝ덴

ga-ms-den

go-CONT-REP

ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

gawr-at-su-da

say-PFV-HON-SE

[honorific neutralized]

진 집이가ᇝ덴ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.

ji-n jib-iga-ms-dengawr-at-su-da

3SG-TOP house-LOC go-CONT-REP say-PFV-HON-SE

Other connectives include(으)민-(eu)min"if";(으)난-(eu)nan"because"; and단/당-dan/dang"after".

Auxiliary and light verbs

Jeju has manyauxiliary verbsthat are linked to the preceding main verb by the morpheme어/아-eo/a.These include안네다anneda"to give," for an action that benefits a superior;불다bulda"to throw away," for an action yielding a complete result; and지다jida"to become," for a change of state.Jidais also used to indicate ability.

일

il

work

하영

hayeong

a.lot

헤노난

he-nonan

do-because

죽어지켜.

jug-eo-ji-k-yeo

die-eo-become-PROSP-SE

일 하영 헤노난 죽어지켜.

il hayeong he-nonan jug-eo-ji-k-yeo

work a.lot do-because die-eo-become-PROSP-SE

"I will become close to dying because I work a lot."

Jeju also useslight verbs,which have little semantic meaning but combine with nouns to form verbs. The most common light verb isᄒᆞ다hawda"to do," e.g.부름씨bureumssi"errand" →부름씨ᄒᆞ다bureumssi-hawda"to run an errand".There is also a large inventory ofperiphrasticphrases that convey modality.

Post-phrasal particles

Jeju has a small group of particles that commonly occur at the very end of phrases or sentences, many of which play important roles asdiscourse markers.The four principal ones are the formality marker마씀-masseumand the emphatic markers게-ge,이-i,and양-yang.

-masseum(variants마씸-massim,마씨-massi) may occur after subsentential phrases such as a bare or case-inflected noun, or attach to a small number of mostly plain sentence enders.The particle shows the speaker's deference towards the addressee, but is considered more emotionally intimate than the verbally inflected honorifics. In certain contexts,-masseummay be used with an intention to snub the addressee.

-geis a discourse marker that attaches to adverbs, nouns and noun particles, and both sentence enders and connectives. It adds emphasis to theutteranceand is often used to agree with or confirm something the addressee has just said.-iis used similarly to-ge,but is weaker in its emphasis.Both cannot be used while addressing a social superior, and-ialso cannot appear in formal speech.Both particles can also appear in isolation:geas a strong affirmation to a question,ias an indication that the speaker has not heard or does not believe what has been said.

-yangshows deference, but is considered more informal than-masseum.At the end of a sentence, it emphasizes the speaker's beliefs or attitudes. For example, a question becomes a rhetorical one when-yangis attached:이시카is-ik-a"Could there be?" →이시카양is-ik-a-yang"How could there be?"The particle is also commonly used for sarcastic mock deference, such as by parents while scolding children.Sentence-initially or internally, the suffix may establish the preceding element as the topic of discourse.Yangis also used in isolation as aninterjectionto get the attention of unfamiliar individuals, such as a shopkeeper, or to request the addressee to repeat what they have just said.

In the example below from Yang C. 2009, three of the four particles discussed above are used.

Granddaughter:	할마니, halmani, 이디가 idi-ga 말로만 mal-loman 들어난 deureo-nan 모슬포우꽈? Moseulpo-ukkwa? 할마니, 이디가 말로만 들어난 모슬포우꽈? halmani, idi-ga mal-loman deureo-nan Moseulpo-ukkwa? "Grandmother, is this place Moseulpo, which I've only heard of?"
Grandmother:	ᄋᆞ aw 맞다게, matda-ge, 이디가 idi-ga 모슬포여. Moseulpo-yeo. ᄋᆞ 맞다게,이디가 모슬포여. aw matda-ge,idi-ga Moseulpo-yeo. "Yes, you'reindeedcorrect, this place is Moseulpo. "
Granddaughter:	모슬포양... Moseulpo-yang... 게민 gemin 어떵허연 eotteong-heoyeon 모슬포옌 Moseulpo-yen ᄒᆞ엿인신고마씸? hawyeosinsingo-massim? ᄒᆞᆨ교에서 hawkgyo-eseo 숙제 sukje 내연마씸. naeyeon-massim. 모슬포양... 게민 어떵허연 모슬포옌 ᄒᆞ엿인신고마씸?ᄒᆞᆨ교에서 숙제 내연마씸. Moseulpo-yang... gemin eotteong-heoyeon Moseulpo-yen hawyeosinsingo-massim?hawkgyo-eseo sukje naeyeon-massim. "Moseulpo,right... So why do they call it Moseulpo,please?They gave us an assignment at school,please."

Note the granddaughter's use of the verbally inflected honorific-u-and the deference-markingmassimandyangwhile addressing the grandmother.

Pronouns and deixis

Jeju has the following basic personal pronouns.

	Singular	Plural	Usage
1st person	나/내 na/nae  "I; me"	우리(덜) uri(-deol)  "we; us"
2nd person	느/니 neu/ni  "you (s.)"	느네(덜) neu-ne-(deol)  "you (pl.)"	For younger, emotionally intimate, or socially inferior individuals
	지 ji  "you (s.)"	지네(덜) ji-ne(-deol)  "you (pl.)"	For younger individuals, but more respectful thanneu/ni
	No overt pronoun		For older individuals
3rd person	Noneper se. Informally, demonstratives used before아의ai:가이gai"him/her" (lit. 'that person'), etc.

According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, there are four basicdeicticdemonstrativesin Jeju.Most other sources mention three, which are identical to those of Standard Korean.

• Proximal:이i"this"
• Medial or absent:그geu"that"
• Distal:저jeo"that"

Vocabulary

Most of the Jeju lexicon isKoreanic,and "a sizeable number" of words are identical with Korean.There arefalse friendsbetween the languages, such as Korean감다gamda"to wash hair" and Jejuᄀᆞᆷ다gawmda"to wash the body."Jeju also preserves manyMiddle Koreanterms now lost in Korean, such as갓gat"wife; woman" and어시eosi"parent."Like Korean, Jeju uses manySino-Koreanwords based on local readings ofClassical Chinese.

Jeju Island was ruled by the Mongols in the late thirteenth century and someMiddle Mongolterms still survive in the language, though the extent of Mongol influence is disputed. Popular claims of hundreds of Mongol loans in Jeju are linguistically unsound.Uncontroversial Mongol loans are most common in terms relating to animal husbandry.

English	Jeju	Middle Mongol
bridle	가달gadal	qada'ar
halter	녹대nokdae	noγta
two-year-old cattle	다간dagan	daγaγan"two-year-old horse"
classifierfor houses	거리geori	ger"house"

Jeju may have loans from an ancient Japonic substratum.As the last fluent generation of Jeju speakers were born under or shortly after Japanese rule, remaining speakers also use many loans from Modern Japanese.

English	Jeju	Japanese
noisy	우르사이ureusai	うるさいurusai
chopsticks	하시hasi	Đũahashi
habit	쿠세kuse	Phíchkuse

Sound symbolism

Jeju has widespreadsound symbolisminideophones.The use of sound symbolism to form emphatic variants of words is more common in Jeju than in Seoul Korean.

Jeju sound symbolism operates with both consonants and vowels. The intensity of a Jeju word may be strengthened by using tense and especially aspirate obstruents.The sound symbolism may also be emphasized through the addition of consonants,by adding the sequence-락-rakto both reduplicated segments, and withfortitionorlenition.Theyangharmonic class of vowels has a bright, small connotation, and theyinvowel class gives a dark, large connotation.Ko Jae-hwan also gives examples of three or four layers of vowel sound symbolism.

• Consonant sound symbolism:
  • 고시롱gosirong"savory" →꼬시롱kkosirong"[very] savory" →코시롱kosirong"[extremely] savory"
  • 을강을강eulgang-eulgang"[small] sound of rat gnawing teeth" →글강글강geulgang-geulgang"[large] sound of rat gnawing teeth"
  • ᄇᆞᆯ착ᄇᆞᆯ착bawlchak-bawlchak"easily angered" →ᄇᆞᆯ치락ᄇᆞᆯ치락bawlchirak-bawlchirak"[very] easily angered"
  • 크뜽크뜽keutteung-keutteung"neatly aligned" →코찡코찡kojjing-kojjing"[very] neatly aligned"
• Vowel sound symbolism:
  • 동골동골donggol-donggol"round [of a small object]" →둥굴둥굴dunggul-dunggul"round [of a large object]"
  • ᄋᆞᆼ당ᄋᆞᆼ당awngdang-awngdang"[small and light] sound of muttered complaints" →옹당옹당ongdang-ongdang"[large and heavy] sound of muttered complaints" →웅당웅당ungdang-ungdang"[very large and very heavy] sound of muttered complaints"
  • ᄆᆞᆫ들ᄆᆞᆫ들mawndeul-mawndeul"smooth to the touch [of a very small or dry object]" →맨들맨들maendeul-maendeul"smooth to the touch [of a somewhat small or dry object]" →문들문들mundeul-mundeul"slippery to the touch [of a somewhat large or wet object]" →민들민들mindeul-mindeul"slippery to the touch [of a very large or wet object]"

Multiple sound-symbolic strategies may combine in a single word. Kang S. 2008 gives eight sound symbolic variants of the ideophoneᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁mawltak-mawltak"the shape of many objects being blunt," each more intense than the other:

ᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁mawltak-mawltak→ᄆᆞᆯ트락ᄆᆞᆯ트락mawlteurak-mawlteurak→ᄆᆞᆯ착ᄆᆞᆯ착mawlchak-mawlchak→ᄆᆞᆯ치락ᄆᆞᆯ치락mawlchirak-mawlchirak→뫁탁몰탁moltak-moltak→몰착몰착molchak-molchak→몰트락몰트락molteurak-molteurak→몰치락몰치락molchirak-molchirak

Kinship terminology

Thekinship terminologyof Jeju has been the focus of particular attention.Jeju has a complex kinship system that distinguishes the gender of both the speaker and the relative. Gender distinctions are particularly noticeable in sibling terminology. The words성seongand아시asirefer to "older same-gender sibling" and "younger same-gender sibling" respectively, while오라방orabangand누이nuirefer specifically to "brother of a female" and "sister of a male" respectively.Female speakers also tend to refer to relatives with native compounds, whereas male speakers prefer Sino-Korean terms. For instance, the same cousin may be referred to by a man asᄉᆞ춘sawchun"cousin" but by a woman as고모님 ᄄᆞᆯgomo-nim ttawl"paternal aunt's daughter."A major distinction between Jeju and Korean kinship terms is that women do not use honorifics to refer to their in-laws, reflecting weaker historical influence fromConfucianpatriarchal norms.

Jeju also uses supplementary prefixes to clarify the type of kinship, equivalent to "step-" or "maternal" in English.These include친-chin-,성-seong-,and당-dang-for paternal relations,웨-we-for maternal relations,다슴-daseum-for step-relations,처-cheo-and가시-gasi-for a male's in-laws, and시-si-for a woman's in-laws.Five other prefixes, which may be combined, mark relative age:쳇-chet-or큰-keun-"eldest,"셋-set-"second eldest of three or more,"말젯-maljet-"third eldest of four or more," and족은-jogeun-"youngest." These are used to distinguish relatives of the same generation.

• 하르방hareubang"grandfather"
  • 큰하르방keun-hareubang"oldest brother of one's grandfather"
  • 셋하르방set-hareubang"second brother of one's grandfather"
  • 큰말젯하르방keun-maljet-hareubang"third brother of one's grandfather"
  • 셋말젯하르방set-maljet-hareubang"fourth brother of one's grandfather"
  • 족은말젯하르방jogeun-maljet-hareubang"fifth brother of one's grandfather"
  • 족은하르방jogeun-hareubang"youngest brother of one's grandfather"

Other prefixes include왕-wang-,used in왕하르방wang-hareubang"great-grandfather", and넛-neot-,used to refer to a sibling of one's grandparent generally.

Sample text

The following is an excerpt from a version of theMenggam bon-puri,one of the epic chants recited by Jeju shamans. In this myth, the poacher Song Saman discovers an abandoned skull in the hills and cares for itas if it were his own ancestor.The skull reciprocates by warning Song Saman of his early death and advising him on how to avoid thechasa,the three gods of death.

This version was transcribed between 1956 and 1963from the recitation of the shaman Byeon Sin-saeng, bornc.1904.The transcription predates both standardized orthographies of Jeju. The transcriber openly notes that the orthography is inconsistent.No attempt was made in this article to standardize or update the orthography.

Jeju original	Korean translation
“느 송ᄉᆞ만이 전맹이 ᄀᆞᆺ 서른이 매기난, 서른 나는 해에 아무ᄃᆞᆯ 아무날은 맹이 매기니 느가 발 살앙 오몽ᄒᆞ여질 때, 나를 낭곳으로 ᄀᆞ져다 도라... 시 ᄆᆞ슬 강 심방 시 개 걷우우곡 마당이 큰대 세왕 두 일회 열나을 굿을 ᄒᆞ라...” 맷딱 ᄎᆞᆯ려놓완 백보 밲겼딜로 간 절을 ᄒᆞ연, ᄀᆞ만이 꿀련 업더져두서 보난 삼체ᄉᆞ가 ᄂᆞ려오멍... “송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이서 정성을 아니드렴신가?” 말자이 오는 체ᄉᆞᆫ “송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이 백년대강이를 모삼따. 그 백년대강이가 송ᄉᆞ만이 심으레 오람센 ᄀᆞᆯ아분 생이여... 받음은 받았주마는 심엉 오랜 ᄒᆞᆫ 시간이 시여부난 어떵흘코?”	“너 송사만이는 겨우 서른이 수명의 끝이니, 서른 되는 해에는 아무 달 아무 날에 명이 끝날 테이므로 너가 발이 살아서 움직일 수 있을 때 나를 나무숲으로 데려다 달라... 마을 세 곳에 가서 무당 세 명을 모으고 마당에 큰 깃대 세워서 두 이레 열나흘 굿[제주 큰굿]을 하라... “ 다 차려놓은 체 백보 바깥으로 가 절하며 가만히 무릎 꿇고 업드리고 보니까, 삼차사가 내려오면서... “송사만이네 집에서 정성을 드리고 있는 것 아닌가? “ 나중에 오는 차사는, “송사만이네 집에서 백년 된 해골을 모시고 있다. 그 백년 된 해골이 송사만이 잡으러 오고 있다고 말해버린 모양이야... 준 건 받았지만 잡아 오라고 한 마감이 있는데 어떻게 할까? “
Romanization
neu Song Sawman-i jeonmaeng-i gawt seoreun-i maeg-inan, seoreun naneun hae-e amu dawl amu nar-eun maeng-i maeg-ini neu-ga bal sarang omong-hawyeo-jil ttae, na-reul nang-gos-euro gawjyeoda dora... si mawseul gang simbang si gae geoduugok madang-i keun dae sewang du ilhwe yeol-naeul gus-eul hawra... maetttak chawllyeo-nowan baekbo baekgyeot-dillo gan jeor-eul hawyeon, gawmani kkulyeon eopdeojyeo-duseo bonan samchesaw-ga nawryeo-omeong... "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-iseo jeongseong-eul ani deuryeomsin'ga?" Maljai oneun chesaw-n "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-i baengnyeon-daegang'i-reul mosamtta. geu baengnyeon-daegang'i-ga Song Sawman-i simeure oramsen gawra-bun saeng-iyeo... badeum-eun badat-jumaneun simeong oraen hawn sigan-i siyeo-bunan eotteong-heulko?"
English
"You, Song Saman, your life will end at only thirty, and the year you turn thirty, your life will end at any day of any month, so take me to the wooded forest while your feet are still alive and you can move... Go to three villages and gather three shamans and raise a great flagstaff in the household hall, and hold the GreatGut[lit. 'thegutof two weeks and fourteen days']... " Once they laid out everything, [Song Sawman and his wife] went back a hundred steps and prostrated themselves. Quietly kneeling and lying prone, they saw the threechasadescend... "Are they not doing devotional acts at Song Saman's household?" Thechasacoming in last [responded], "At Song Saman's household, they are worshipping a hundred-year-old skull. It seems that the hundred-year-old skull told [them] that we were coming to capture Song Sawman... We have partaken of the offerings [lit. 'received what is received'], but there is a date that they told us to capture him by, so what should we do? "

See also

• Bon-puri,Jeju-language narrative poems explaining the origins of deities.

References

Bibliography

English

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• Yang, Sejung (November 2014).Teaching Jejueo: Present Problems and Future Plans(PDF).7th World Congress of Korean Studies. Honolulu, Hawaii.
• ————— (December 2018).Assessing Language Knowledge in Jeju: Vocabulary and Verbal Patterns in Jejueo and English(PDF)(PhD). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 September 2021.Retrieved16 May2020.
• ————— (2020)."Resegmentation of Tense-Aspect Markers in Jejueo, the Traditional Language of Jeju Island"(PDF).The Linguistic Association of Korea Journal.28(1): 65–78.doi:10.24303/lakdoi.2020.28.1.65.Retrieved27 May2020.
• "New interactive atlas adds two more endangered languages".unesco.org.8 December 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 3 August 2020.Retrieved17 May2020.
• "Jeju, UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger".unesco.org.11 June 2017.Retrieved16 May2020.

Korean

• 강석한 (Kang Seok-han) (November 2008)."Jeju Hangug-eo-ui gangjo jungcheob-eo-e natanan jaeum eum-byeonhwa yangsang yeon'gu"제주 한국어의 강조 중첩어에 나타난 자음 음변화 양상 연구[The Consonant Change Pattern of Emphatic Reduplication in Cheju Korean].언어학 연구.13:1–16.
• 강영봉 (Kang Young-bong) (2008). Jeju jiyeog-eo saengtae jisu josa bogoseo제주 지역어 생태 지수 조사 보고서[Report on the Vitality Quotient of the Jeju Regional Language] (Report).National Institute of the Korean Language.
• ——— (2010). Jeju-do-min-ui Jeju-eo sayong siltae josa bogoseo: jung·godeung-haksaeng-eul daesang-euro제주도민의 제주어 사용 실태 조사 보고서: 중·고등학생을 대상으로[Report on the Use of the Jeju Language by Jeju Islanders: Focusing on Middle and High School Students] (Report). 제주대학교 국어문화원 (Center for Korean Language and Culture,Jeju National University).
• ——— (16 June 2018).Jeju-eo pyogi-beob-e daehan dansang‘제주어 표기법’에 대한 단상[Brief Thoughts on "Jeju Language Orthography"](PDF).제주어 표기법 토론회 (Debate on the Orthography of the Jeju Language). Jeju City, Jeju.
• 강윤희 (Kang Yoon-hee) (1994). "Jeju sahoe-eseo du bang'eon sayong-e daehan minjok-ji-jeok yeon'gu"제주사회에서의 두 방언 사용에 대한 민족지적 연구[An Ethnographic Study on Bidialectalism in Cheju Society].제주도연구.11:83–146.ISSN1229-7569.
• 고동호 (Ko Dong-ho) (December 1997)."Jeju bang'eon-ui moeum johwa yeon'gu"제주 방언의 모음 조화 연구[Vowel harmony in the Cheju dialect].언어학.21:3–48.ISSN1229-4039.Retrieved12 May2020.
• ——— (30 June 2008)."Jeju bang'eon 'arae-a'-ui sidae-byeol byeonhwa yangsang"제주 방언 'ㆍ'의 세대별 변화 양상[Changes of /ㆍ/ in the Jeju dialect in apparent time].한국언어문학.65:55–74.ISSN1229-1730.Retrieved11 May2020.
• 고동호 (Ko Dong-ho); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun) (December 2015).Jejut-mar-ui ihae제줏말의 이해[Understanding the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원.ISBN978-89-6010-440-2.
• 고미숙 (Ko Mi-Sook); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 변길자 (Byun Giljia); 김종훈 (Kim Jong-hoon); 박순복 (Park Soon-bok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung) (September 2007)."Jeju bang'eon-ui yeollyeongdae-byeol eogyang-gu gyeonggye-seongjo yeon'gu"제주방언의 연령대별 억양구 경계성조 연구[Age-related differences in the boundary tone patterns of intonational phrases in the Jeju dialect].언어과학연구.42:27–43.ISSN1229-0343.Retrieved14 May2020.
• 고영진 (Ko Young-jin) (June 2008)."Jeju-do bang'eon-ui hyeongtaeron-jeok sang beomju-ui chegye-hwa-reul wihayeo"제주도 방언의 형태론적 상 범주의 체계화를 위하여[For the Study of the Morphological Aspect System in Cheju Dialect].한글.280:101–128.ISSN1225-0449.Retrieved23 May2020.
• 고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan) (9 September 2011).Jeju-eo gaeron sang제주어개론 상[Introduction to Jeju, Volume I]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사.ISBN978-89-8433-934-7.
• ——— (9 September 2011).Jeju-eo gaeron ha제주어개론 하[Introduction to Jeju, Volume II]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사.ISBN978-89-8433-935-4.
• 고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (November 2014).Jeju-eo pyogi-beop haeseol제주어 표기법 해설[Exposition of the Orthography of the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원.ISBN978-89-6010-387-0.
• 권성훈 (Kwon Seong-hun) (February 2017)."Jeju bang'eon sog'eui Mongol-eo chayong-eo"제주방언 속의 몽골어 차용어[Mongol Loanwords in Jeju Dialect].동악어문학.70:53–67.ISSN1229-4306.Retrieved20 May2020.
• 김미진 (Kim Mi-jin) (August 2010)."Jeju-do bang'eon-ui chinjog-eo yeon'gu―yeoseong hawaja-reul jungsim-euro"제주도 방언의 친족어 연구―여성 화자를 중심으로[Study on the Kinship terms of JeJu dialect― Focused on female speakers].영주어문.20:27–41.ISSN1598-9011.Retrieved20 May2020.
• ——— (February 2019)."Jeju bang'eon-ui inyong pyoji yeon'gu"제주 방언의 인용 표지 연구[A study on quotation marker of Jeju dialect].영주어문.41:29–55.doi:10.30774/yjll.2019.02.41.29.ISSN1598-9011.S2CID187483331.Retrieved27 May2020.
• 김보향 (Kim Bo-hyang) (August 2014)."Osaka Ikuno-ku jiyeok jaeil-Jeju-in-ui Jeju bang'eon sayong siltae-e gwanhan yeon'gu"오사카 이쿠노쿠 지역 재일제주인의 제주방언 사용 실태에 관한 연구[A Study on the Jeju Dialect Used by Jeju People Living in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan](PDF).영주어문.28:111–136.ISSN1598-9011.Retrieved14 May2020.
• 김순자 (Kim Sun-ja) (December 2010).Jeju-do bang'eon-ui eoneo-jiri-hak-jeok yeon'gu제주도방언의 언어지리학적 연구[A Geolinguistic Study on the Jeju Dialect] (PhD). Jeju National University.
• ——— (August 2019)."Jeju-do bang'eon-e daehan bang'eon taedo chui yeon'gu"제주도 방언에 대한 방언 태도 추이 연구[A Study on Changes in Attitude to Jeju Dialect].한국어학.84:1–34.ISSN1226-9123.Retrieved17 May2020.
• 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2004)."Jeju bang'eon-eseo arae-a eum-ui eumhyang-bunseok"제주 방언에서 [ㆍ] 음의 음향분석[On the Acoustic Analysis of the Vowel [ㆍ] in Jeju Dialect].언어학연구.9(1): 73–90.ISSN1229-0343.Retrieved11 May2020.
• ——— (December 2005)."Jeju bang'eon ijung-moeum-ui eumhyang-bunseok"제주방언 이중모음의 음향분석[The Acoustic Analysis of the Diphthongs in Jeju Dialect].음성과학.12(2): 29–41.ISSN1226-5276.Retrieved11 May2020.
• 김정은 (Kim Jeong-eun) (24 February 2019)."10년 성과 바탕…제주어 정립".Jeju Sinbo제주신보.Jeju City, Jeju.Retrieved17 May2020.
• 김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong) (20 July 2015).Jeju bang'eon-ui tongsa gisul-gwa seolmyeong: gibon-gumun-ui gineung-beomju bunseok제주 방언의 통사 기술과 설명: 기본구문의 기능범주 분석[Explanation and Description of the Syntax of the Jeju Dialect: Analysis of the Functional Categories of the Basic Syntax]. Gwangmyeong, Gyeonggi-do: 도서출판 경진.ISBN978-89-5996-474-1.
• ——— (September 2016)."Jeju bang'eon-ui seon-eomal-eomi-wa jonggyeol-eomi chegye"제주 방언의 선어말어미와 종결어미 체계[On Prefinal and Final Ending Systems in Jeju Korean].한글.313:109–171.ISSN1225-0449.Retrieved23 May2020.
• 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (2002)."Jeju bang'eon-ui bojo-josa-ui damhwa gineung"제주 방언 보조조사의 담화 기능[The Discourse Functions of Auxiliary Noun Markers in the Jeju Dialect].영주어문.4:71–84.ISSN1598-9011.Retrieved21 May2020.
• ——— (February 2003)."Jeju bang'eon banmal-che cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung"제주 방언 반말체 첨사의 담화 기능[The Discourse Functions of Informal-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect].영주어문.5:71–86.ISSN1598-9011.Retrieved27 May2020.
• ——— (February 2005)."Jeju bang'eon nopim-mal cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung"제주 방언 높임말 첨사의 담화 기능[The Discourse Functions of Honorific-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect].언어 연구.20(3): 1–17.ISSN1225-4770.Retrieved27 May2020.
• ——— (September 2005)."Jeju bang'eon-ui gantu pyohyeon"제주 방언의 간투 표현[Interjectional Expressions in Jeju Dialect].한글.269:161–188.doi:10.22557/HG.2005.09.269.161.ISSN1225-0449.Retrieved27 May2020.
• 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myeong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (2015). Jeju-eo pyogi-beop jamo-ui silje bareum-gwa eumseong bunseok yeon'gu'제주어 표기법’자모의 실제 발음과 음성 분석 연구[The Actual Pronunciations of Vowels and Consonants Acknowledged in the Transcription Regulation for the Jeju Language and their Phonetic Analysis Study] (Report). Center for Jeju Studies, Jeju Development Institute,Jeju Special Self-Governing Province.
• 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (August 2017)."Jeju bang'eon gyeok-josa-ui damhwa gineung"제주 방언 격조사의 담화 기능[The Discourse Functions of Noun Case Markers in the Jeju Dialect].언어학연구.22(2): 55–70.doi:10.21291/jkals.2017.22.2.4.ISSN1226-9859.Retrieved21 May2020.
• 송상조 (Song Sang-jo) (30 September 2011).Jeju-mal-eseo ttae-garim-so '-ng, -n'-gwa ssi-kkeut-deul-ui hoeung제주말에서 때가림소 '-ㅇ, -ㄴ'과 씨끝들의 호응[The Interaction between Tense-differentiating Morphemes "-ng, -n" and Enders]. Seongdong-gu, Seoul: 한국문화사.ISBN978-89-5726-906-0.
• 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (October 2015)."Jeju-bang'eon pyeongseo-mun-gwa uimun-mun-e natananeun eogyang yeon'gu: eomal-eomi '-an/-eon, -eumen'-eul jungsim-euro"제주방언 평서문과 의문문에 나타나는 억양 연구: 어말어미 ‘-안/언, -으멘’을 중심으로[Intonation study of predicate ending and interrogative ending in Jeju dialect: "-ʌn/ɑn, -ɯmɛn" ].영주어문.31:87–109.ISSN1598-9011.Retrieved14 May2020.
• 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong); 신지영 (Shin Ji-young) (August 2012)."Jeju bang'eon dan-moeum-e daehan eumhyang-eumseong-hak-jeok yeon'gu"제주 방언 단모음에 대한 음향음성학적 연구[An Acoustic Phonetic Study on Monophthongs in Jeju Korean].한국어학.56:63–90.ISSN1226-9123.Retrieved11 May2020.
• 양창용 (Yang Changyong) (June 2009)."Jeju-bang'eon yang-e daehan tongsa·damhwa-ron-jeok gochal"제주방언 ‘양’에 대한 통사·담화론적 고찰[A study on "yang" in Jeju dialect with a special reference to its distributions and some discourse functions].한국언어문학.69:5–28.ISSN1229-1730.Retrieved27 May2020.
• ——— (November 2014).Jeju-eo: yeoksa geurigo taedo제주어: 역사 그리고 태도[Jejueo: History and Attitudes](PDF).7th World Congress of Korean Studies. Honolulu, Hawaii.
• ——— (June 2016)."Jeju-eo-ui yeon'gu hyeonhwang-gwa gwaje"제주어의 연구 현황과 과제[Understanding of Status Quo of Jejueo in Language Community of Jeju].동서인문학.51:131–159.ISSN1738-9615.Retrieved17 May2020.
• 양창용 (Yang Changyong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2013)."Jeju-eo ge-ui damhwa-jeok gineung-e daehan gochal"제주어 ‘게’의 담화적 기능에 대한 고찰[A study on the discourse functions of "key" in the Jeju language].언어와 언어학.59:143–163.
• 우창헌 (Woo Chang-hyun) (September 2005). "Jeju bang'eon-ui '-neu-'-e daehayeo"제주 방언의 '-느-'에 대하여[On "-neu-" in the Jeju dialect].형태론.7(2): 387–402.
• ——— (June 2008)."Bang'eon munbeop hyengtae yeon'gu bangbeop-Jeju-bang'eon seon-eomal-eomi '-keu-'-reul jungsim-euro"방언 문법 형태 연구 방법-제주방언 선어말어미 '-크-'를 중심으로-[On the Study Method of a Dialect Grammar Form].방언학.7:57–74.ISSN1738-8686.Retrieved23 May2020.
• 이숙향 (Lee Sook-hyang) (December 2014)."Jeju-eo gangse-gu-ui eogyang"제주어 강세구의 억양[The intonation patterns of accentual phrase in Jeju dialect].말소리와 음성과학.6(4): 117–123.ISSN2005-8063.Retrieved14 May2020.
• 이정민 (Lee Jeong-min) (December 1981)."Hanguk-eo-ui pyojun-eo mit bang'eon-deul sai-ui sangho jeopchok-gwa taedo"한국어의 표준어 및 방언들 사이의 상호 접촉과 태도[Language attitude and contacts between Standard Korean and Korean dialects].한글.173:559–584.ISSN1225-0449.Retrieved16 May2020.
• 조태린 (Cho Tae-rin) (December 2014)."Jeju-eo-wa Jeju-bang'eon, ireum-ui jeongchi-eoneo-hak"제주어와 제주방언, 이름의 정치언어학[Jeju language and Jeju dialect, political linguistics of naming].어문학.126:117–135.ISSN1225-3774.Retrieved14 May2020.
• 진성기 (Chin Song-gi) (30 October 1991).Jeju-do muga bon-puri sajeon제주도 무가 본풀이 사전[Encyclopedia of JejuBonpuriShamanic Chants]. Guro-gu, Seoul: 민속원.ISBN978-89-5638-041-4.
• 최명옥 (Choi Myung-ok) (April 1998)."Gugeo-ui bang'eon guhoek"국어의 방언 구획[Dialectal Divisions of Korean](PDF).새국어생활.8(4): 5–29.ISSN1225-7168.Retrieved15 May2020.
• 홍종림 (Hong Chong-rim) (December 2001)."Jeju-bang'eon yeong'gyeol-eomi-ui '-n' '-ŋ'-e daehayeo"제주방언 연결어미의 "-n" "-ŋ" 에 대하여[On the Conjunctive Endings -n and -ŋ in the Cheju Dialect].국어학.38:271–305.ISSN1225-1933.Retrieved23 May2020.
• "Pyojun-eo-wa jiyeok-bang'eon"표준어와 지역방언[Standard Korean and Regional Dialects]. 2015-nyeon gukmin-ui eoneo uisik josa2015년 국민의 언어 의식 조사[Study of the Language Perceptions of Koreans, 2015] (Report).National Institute of the Korean Language.November 2015. pp. 93–116.
• 제주문화예술재단 (Jeju Foundation for Arts and Culture), ed. (1 December 2009).Gaejeong·jeungbo Jeju-eo sajeon개정·증보 제주어사전[Expanded and Revised Jeju Dictionary](PDF).Jeju City, Jeju:Jeju Special Self-Governing Province.ISBN978-89-9625-725-7.
• "Jeju-eo bojeon-gwa yukseong hwaldong"제주어 보전과 육성 활동[Jeju Language Preservation and Revitalization Efforts]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-il-gwon제주특별자치도지 제1권(Report).Jeju Special Self-Governing Province.2019. pp. 491–512.
• "Jeju eoneo munhwa"제주 언어 문화[Jeju Language Culture]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-sa-gwon제주특별자치도지 제4권(Report).Jeju Special Self-Governing Province.2019. pp. 300–326.

External links

• jejueo:The official Korean-language website of the Jeju Language Preservation Society, the leading language revival organization.
• Jejueo: The Language of Jeju Island:An English-language website maintained by Yang Changyong, Yang Sejung, and William O'Grady, authors of the only English-language monograph on the language. The site includes an audio sample (found in the section "Jejueo Intelligibility Test" ) and a short Jeju-English dictionary.
• "A multi-modal documentation of Jejuan conversations":An annotated audio-video corpus of spoken Jeju, maintained by theEndangered Languages ArchiveatSOAS University of London
• Jejuan DoReCo corpuscompiled by Soung-U Kim. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.