Judaism and politics

The relationship betweenJudaism and politicsis a historically complex subject, and has evolved over time concurrently with both changes within Jewish society and religious practice, and changes in the general society of places where Jewish people live. In particular, Jewish political thought can be split into four major eras:Biblical(prior to Roman rule),Rabbinic(from roughly the 100 BCE to 600 CE),Medieval(from roughly 600 CE to 1800 CE), andModern(18th century to the present day).

Several different political models are described across itscanon,usually composed of some combination oftribalfederation,monarchy,apriestlytheocracy,and rule byprophets.Political organization during the Rabbinic and Medieval eras generally involved semi-autonomous rule by Jewish councils and courts (with council membership often composed purely ofrabbis) that would govern the community and act as representatives tosecularauthorities outside the Jewish community. Beginning in the 19th century, and coinciding with the expansion of the political rights accorded to individual Jews in European society, Jews would affiliate with and contribute theory to a wide range of political movements and philosophies.

Biblical models

Stuart Cohen has pointed out that there are three separate power centers depicted in theHebrew Bible:the priesthood, the royal throne, and the prophets.

One model of biblicalpoliticsis the model of the tribal federation, where power is shared among different tribes and institutions. Another is the model of limitedconstitutional monarchy.

The Hebrew Bible contains a complexchronicleof theKings of IsraelandJudah.Some passages of the Hebrew Bible contain intimate portrayals of the inner workings of the royal households ofSaul,David,andSolomon;the accounts of subsequent monarchs are frequently more distanced and less detailed, and frequently begin with the judgement that the monarch "did evil in the sight of the Lord".

Daniel Elazarhas argued that the concept ofcovenantis the fundamental concept in the biblical political tradition and in the later Jewish thought that emerges from the Bible.

Rabbinic period

The Sanhedrin

InRoman Judea,Jewish communities were governed by rabbinical courts known asSanhedrin.Lesser Sanhedrins composed of 23 judges were appointed to each city, while a Great Sanhedrin with 71 judges was the highest authority, taking cases appealed from the lower courts. The Sanhedrin served as the leadership of the Jewish community underRomanrule, and served as emissaries to the imperial authorities in addition to overseeing religious practice and collecting taxes.The Sanhedrin was the highest Jewish governing body of theSecond Temple period.

Talmudic sources on political philosophy

A statement byJudah bar Ilaiin theBabylonian Talmud(Sanhedrin 20b) depictsmonarchyas the ideal form of Jewish governance, following theBook of Deuteronomystatement that, "When you come into the land that the Lord your God is about to give you, and you take hold of it and dwell in it, and you say, 'Let me put a king over me like all the nations that are around me', you shall surely put over you a king whom the Lord your God chooses..." (Deut. 17:14–15).But theTalmudalso brings a different interpretation of this verse fromEleazar ben Arach,who is quoted as explaining that, "This section was spoken only in anticipation of their future murmurings, as it is written, and you say, Let me put a king over me..." (Sanhedrin 20b). In many interpretations, Rabbi Nehorai does not think of appointing a king as a strict obligation, but as a concession to later "murmurings" from Israel.

In addition to imagining ideal forms of governance, the rabbis accept a principle to obey the government currently in power. The Talmud makes reference to the principle ofdina de-malkhuta dina( "the law of the land is law" ), a principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, provided that they are not contrary to any laws ofJudaism.

Medieval period

The Qahal

During theMiddle Ages,someAshkenazi Jewishcommunities were governed byqahal.Theqahalhad regulatory control over Jewish communities in a given region; they administered commerce, hygiene, sanitation, charity,Jewish education,kashrut,and relations between landlords and their tenants. It provided a number of community facilities, such as arabbi,aritual bath,and aninterest-free loan facility for the Jewish community.Theqahaleven had sufficient authority that it could arrange for individuals to be expelled fromsynagogues,excommunicatingthem.

Medieval Jewish political philosophy

Some medieval political theorists such asMaimonidesandNissim of Geronasaw kingship as the ideal form of government. Maimonides' views the commandment in Deuteronomy to appoint a king as a clear positive ideal, following the Talmudic teaching that "three commandments were given to Israel when they entered the land: to appoint a king, as it says, 'You shall surely put over you a king'..."A large section of Maimonides' legal code, theMishneh Torah,titled "The Laws of Kings and their Wars", deals with the ideal model of kingship, especially in the messianic era, and also concerning ruling over non-Jewish subjects through theNoachide laws.Other sections of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah (mostly also in theBook of Judges,where the laws of kingship are also found) is dedicated to the laws relating to legislators and judges.

Whereas Maimonides' idealized kingship, other medieval political theorists, such asAbravanel,saw kingship as misguided.Later on, other Jewish philosophers such asBaruch Spinozawould lay the groundwork forthe Enlightenment,arguing for ideas such as theseparation of church and state.Spinoza's writings caused him to beexcommunicatedfrom the Jewish community ofAmsterdam,although his work and legacy has been largely rehabilitated, especially amongsecular Jewsin the 20th and 21st centuries.

Modern period

WithJewish emancipation,the institution of theqahalas an autonomous entity was officially abolished. Jews increasingly became participants in the wider political and social sphere of larger nations. As Jews became citizens of states with various political systems, and argued about whether tofound their own state,Jewish ideas of the relationship between Judaism and politics developed in many different directions.

In Europe

In the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, when there was a large Jewish population in Europe, some Jews favored various forms ofliberalism,and saw them as connected with Jewish principles. Some Jews allied themselves with a range ofJewish political movements.These includedSocialistandBundistmovements favored by theJewish left,Zionistmovements,Jewish Autonomistmovements,Territorialistmovements, andJewish Anarchismmovements.HarediJews formed an organization known asWorld Agudath Israelwhich espoused Haredi Jewish political principles.

21st century

In the 21st century, shifts are occurring. The Jewish community in Great Britain, one of the largest in theJewish diaspora,is leaningconservative,as a poll published by theJewish Chroniclein early 2015 shows. Of British Jews polled, 69% would vote for theConservative Party,while 22% would vote for theLabour Party.This is in stark contrast to the rest of the voter population, which, according to a BBC poll, had Conservatives and Labour almost tied at about a third each. Jews have typically been a part of the Britishmiddle class,traditional home of the Conservative Party, although the number of Jews inworking classcommunities of London is in decline. The main voting bloc of poorer Jews in Britain now, made up primarily ofultra-Orthodox,votesen massefor the Conservatives. Attitudes towardIsraelinfluence the vote of three out of four of British Jews.A shift toward conservatism has also been exhibited in France, where about half of the Jewish population isSephardic.Jérôme Fourquet,director "Public opinion and corporate strategy" department at the polling organizationIFOP,notes that there is a "pronounced preference" forright-wing politicsamong French Jews. During the 2007 election, Jews (Orthodox or not) represented the strongest pillar of support for Sarkozy after observant Catholics.

In the United States

See also:Jewish views and involvement in U.S. politics

19th century

American Civil War

During theAmerican Civil War,Jews were divided in their views ofslaveryandabolition.Prior to 1861, there were virtually no rabbinical sermons on slavery. The silence on this issue was probably a result of fear that the controversy would create conflict within the Jewish community. Some Jews owned slaves or traded them. Most southern Jews supported slavery, and few Northern Jews were abolitionists, seeking peace and remaining silent on the subject of slavery. America's largest Jewish community, New York's Jews, were "overwhelmingly pro-southern, pro-slavery, and anti-Lincoln in the early years of the war". However, eventually, they began to lean politically toward Abraham Lincoln's Republican party and emancipation.

Swedish born-rabbiMorris Jacob Raphallwas one of the most vocal Jewish supporters of the institution of slavery.Mordecai Manuel Noahwas against the expansion of slavery initially, but later became an opponent of emancipation.Isaac Mayer Wisefollowed a policy of silence on the issue when the war broke out.Wise was a supporter of the Democratic Party, pro-slavery at that time.Ernestine Rosewas one Jewish opponent of slavery, as wasBernhard Felsenthal.Moses Mielzineropposed slavery on a Jewish religious argument, arguing that Mosaic law maintained a compassionate view toward the slave. RabbiDavid Einhornalso invoked Jewish values against slavery. Rose and Einhorn were threatened withtar and feathering.

20th and 21st centuries

Further information:List of Jewish American politicians

While earlier Jewish immigrants tended to be politically conservative, the wave ofEastern European Jewsstarting in the early 1880s, were generally more liberal orleft-wing,and became the political majority.For most of the 20th century since 1936, the vast majority of Jews in the United States have been aligned with theDemocratic Party.Supporters of theJewish lefthave argued thatleft-wingvalues vis-à-vissocial justicecan be traced to Jewish religious texts, including theTanakhand later texts, which include a strong endorsement of hospitality to "the stranger" and the principle ofredistribution of wealth– as well as a tradition of challenging authority, as exemplified by the biblicalprophets.

American rabbinic leaders who have advanced a progressive political agenda grounded in Jewish principles have included:

• Michael Lerner (rabbi)of theJewish Renewalmovement
• Arthur Waskowof theJewish Renewalmovement
• Jill JacobsofConservative Judaism
• David SapersteinofReform Judaism

Other prominent Jews who have argued based on Jewish principles for a progressive political agenda have included:

• Ruth Messinger,former President and CEO ofAmerican Jewish World Service
• Stosh Cotler,CEO ofBend the Arc

Towards the end of the 20th century, and at the beginning of the 21st century,Republicansbegan a platform that sought to take the Jewish vote away from theDemocrats.While a solid majority of American Jews continues to be aligned with the Democratic Party, many have argued that there is increased Jewish support for political conservatism.

Rabbinic leaders who have advanced a conservative political agenda grounded in Jewish principles have included:

• Seymour SiegelofConservative Judaism
• David DalinofConservative Judaism

Other prominent Jews who have argued based on Jewish principles for a conservative political agenda have included:

• Daniel LapinofOrthodox Judaism
• David Klinghoffer
• Dennis Prager
• Elliott Abrams
• David Mamet
• Ben Shapiro

Jewish political philosophy in North America

Significant Jewish political philosophers in North America have included:

• David Novak,a rabbi and philosopher at theUniversity of Toronto,associated with theUnion for Traditional Judaism
• Alan Mittleman,a rabbi and philosopher at theJewish Theological SeminaryofConservative Judaism
• Daniel Elazar,a professor ofpolitical scienceatBar-Ilan UniversityandTemple University
• Michael Walzer,a political theorist at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey
• Michael Sandel,a political philosopher atHarvard University
• Robert Nozick,a late political philosopher atHarvard University
• Murray Rothbard,a lateanarcho-capitalistphilosopher and economist at theUniversity of Nevada, Las Vegas
• Ronald Dworkin,a philosopher of law and political philosopher atNew York University

In Israel

Main article:Politics of Israel

The development of a political system in Israel drew largely on European models of governance, rather than on models from the Jewish political tradition.Some political figures in Israel, however, have seen their principles as based in Judaism. This is especially pronounced in political parties that see themselves as religious parties, such asShas,United Torah Judaism,andThe Jewish Home.

Politics in Israel are dominated byZionistparties. They traditionally fall into three camps, the first two being the largest:Labor Zionism,Revisionist ZionismandReligious Zionism.There are also several non-ZionistOrthodoxreligious parties, non-Zionistsecularleft-winggroups as well as non-Zionist andanti-ZionistIsraeli Arabparties.

Recent interest in developing political theory grounded in Jewish sources has been spurred on by the activities of theneo-conservativeShalem Center.

In Australia

Further information:List of Jewish members of Australian parliaments

One example of a well-known Jew in Australian politics isJosh Frydenberg,a member of thecentre-right,conservativeLiberal Party,who (until2022 served asTreasurerand was (before being unseated) the member ofKooyong,a wealthyMelbourneelectorate.

Currently, there are four Jews in theAustralian Parliament,all in theHouse of Representatives.These areMark Dreyfus(theLabormember forIsaacsinVictoriasince2007),Mike Freelander(the Labor member forMacarthurinNew South Walessince2016),Julian Leeser(the Liberal member forBerowrain New South Wales since 2016) andJosh Burns(the Labor member forMacnamarain Victoria since2019).

The four electorates with the highest Jewish populations are:

Electorate	City	State	Jewish population
Wentworth	Sydney	New South Wales	16.2%
Macnamara	Melbourne	Victoria	12.8%
Goldstein	Melbourne	Victoria	8.8%
Kingsford Smith	Sydney	New South Wales	6.0%

Many Australian Jews have been hostile to the progressiveAustralian Greensparty due to its perceived support for theBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) movement, a pro-Palestinian political movement opposed by both major parties (the Liberal Party and the Labor Party).

There are currently three Jews in state parliaments of Australia: one inNew South Wales(Ron Hoenig,theLabormember forelectoral district of Heffronsince 2012) and two inVictoria(David Southwick,theLiberalmember forCaulfieldsince2010;andPaul Hamer,theLabormember forBox Hillsince2018).

External links

• Media related toJudaism and politicsat Wikimedia Commons