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Jiaolong

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For other uses, seeJiaolong (disambiguation).
JiaoGiaoillustration from the 1725Gujin Tushu Jicheng

Jiaolong(simplified Chinese:Giao long;traditional Chinese:Giao long;pinyin:jiāolóng;Wade–Giles:chiao-lung) orjiao(chiao,kiao) is adragoninChinese mythology,often defined as a "scaled dragon"; it is hornless according to certain scholars and said to be aquatic or river-dwelling. It may have referred to a species ofcrocodile.

A number of scholars point to non-Siniticsouthern origins for the legendary creature and ancient texts chronicle that theYue peopleoncetattooedtheir bodies to ward against these monsters.

In English translations,jiaohas been variously rendered as "jiao-dragon "," crocodile "," flood dragon "," scaly dragon ", or even"kraken".

Name[edit]

ThejiaoGiaocharacter combines the "insectradical"Trùng,to provide general sense of insects, reptiles or dragons,[a]etc., and the right radicaljiaoGiao"cross; mix", etc. which supplies thephoneticelement "jiao".The originalGiaopictographrepresented a person with crossed legs.

TheJapanese equivalentterm iskōryōorkōryū(Giao long).[b]TheVietnamese equivalentisgiao long,considered synonymous to VietnameseThuồng luồng.

Synonyms[edit]

ThePiyadictionary (11th century) claims that its common name wasmaban(Mã vướng).[1][2]

Thejiaois also claimed to be equivalent toSanskritCung bì la(modern Chinese pronunciationgongpiluo) in the 7th-century Buddhist dictionaryYiqiejing yinyi.[c][3]The same Sanskrit equivalent is repeated in the widely usedBencao GangmuorCompendium of Materia Medica.[4]In Buddhist texts this word occurs as names of divine beings,[d][e]and the Sanskrit term in question is actuallykumbhīra[7](कुम्भीर). As a common nounkumbhīrameans "crocodile".[8]

Phonology[edit]

Schuessler reconstructsLater Han ChinesekauandOld Chinese*krâufor modernjiaoGiao.[9]PulleyblankprovidesEarly Middle Chinesekaɨw/kɛːw and Late Middle Chinese kjaːw.[10]

The formkăuis used as theTangperiod pronunciation by American sinologistEdward H. Schafer.[11]The transliterationkiao lungwas given by Dutch orientalistMarinus Willem de Visser[de]'s book on dragons.[12]

Etymology[edit]

NüwaandFuxi.Tomb painting excavated inXin gian g.

Jiao's(Giao)etymologyis obscure. Michael Carr, usingBernhard Karlgren's reconstruction ofOld Chinese*kǒgGiao,explains.

Most etymologies forjiao< *kǒgGiaoare unsupported speculations upon meanings of its phonetic *kǒgGiao'cross; mix with; contact', e.g., the *kǒgGiaodragon can *kǒgGiao'join' its head and tail in order to capture prey, or moves in a *kǒgGiao'twisting' manner, or has *kǒgGiao'continuous' eyebrows. The only corroborated hypothesis takes *kǒgGiao'breed with' to mean *kǒgGiaoindicates a dragon 'crossbreed; mixture'. (1990:126-7)

The word has "mermaid"as one possible gloss,[13]and Schuessler suggests possible etymological connections withBurmesekhruBorkhyuB"scaly, furry beast" andTibetanklu"nāga;water spirits ", albeit theTibeto-Burmanare phonologically distant fromOC.[9]

Crossed eyebrows

The explanation that its name comes from eyebrows that "cross over" (Giaojiao) is given in the ancient textShuyi ji[zh]"Records of Strange Things" (6th century).[14][f][g]

Early sense as mating dragons

It has been suggested thatjiaolongmight have referred to a pair of dragonsmating,with their long bodies coiled around each other (Wen Yiduo2001a:95–96[17])

Thus in the legend around thejiaolongGiao longhovering above the mother giving birth to a future emperor i.e., Liu Bang, thefounding emperor of Han,r. 202-195 BCE[h](Sima Qian,Records of the Grand Historian),[18]the alternative conjectural interpretation is that it was a pair of mating dragons.[16]

The same legend occurs in nearly verbatim copy in theBook of Han,except that the dragons are given asGiao long"crossed dragons".[18]Wen noted that in early usejiaolongGiao long"crossed dragons" was emblematic of the mythological creatorsFuxiandNüwa,who are represented as having a human's upper body and a dragon's tail.[19]

Semantics[edit]

In textual usage, it may be ambiguous whetherjiaolongGiao longshould be parsed as two kinds of dragons or one, as Prof. Zhang Jing (known in Japan asChō Kyō[ja]) comments: "It is difficult to determine whetherjiaolongis the name of a type of dragon, or [two dragons] "jiao"and"long"juxtaposedGiao long はそもそも long の một loại の tên な の か, それとも “Giao” と “Long” からなる hợp lại な の かは phán đoán しにくい..[20]

Zhang cites as one example ofjiaolongused in the poemLi Sao(inChu Ci), in which the poet is instructed by supernatural beings to beckon thejialongand bid them build a bridge.[20]Visser translated this as one type of dragon, thejiaolongorkiao-lung.[21]However, it was the verdict ofWang Yi,an early commentator of this poem that these were two kinds, the smallerjiaoand the largerlong.[22][23]

Translations[edit]

Since the Chinese word for the generic dragon islong(Long), translatingjiaoas "dragon" is problematic as it would make it impossible to distinguish which of the two is being referred to.[24]The termjiaohas thus been translated as "flood dragon"[25][26]or "scaly dragon",[27][28]with some qualifier to indicate it as a subtype. But on this matter, Schafer has suggested using a name for various dragon-like beings such as "kraken"to stand forjiao:

The word "dragon" has already been appropriated to render the broader termlung."Kraken" is good since it suggests a powerful oceanic monster.... We might name thekăua "basilisk"or a"wyvern"or a"cockatrice."Or perhaps we should call it by the name of its close kin, the double-headed crocodile-jawed Indianmakara,which, in ninth-century Java at least, took on some of the attributes of the rain-bringinglungof China. (1967:218)

Some translators have in fact adopted "kraken" as the translated term,[18][29]as Schafer has suggested.

In some contexts,jiaohas also been translated as "crocodile"[30][31][i](See§Identification as real fauna).

Attestations[edit]

Classification and life cycle[edit]

TheShuowen Jiezidictionary (121 CE) glosses thejiaoas "a type of dragon (long),[32][33]as does thePiyadictionary (11th c.), which adds that thejiaoareoviparous(hatch from eggs).[2][15]TheBencao Gangmustates this also,[34]but also notes this is generally true of most scaled creatures.[35]

Jiaoeggs are about the size of a jar of 1 or 2hu[zh]capacity inChinese volume measurement,according toGuo Pu's commentary;[36][37]a variant text states that the hatchlings are of this size.[38][39]It was considered that while the adult jiao lies in pools of water, their eggs hatched on dry land, more specifically on mounds of earth (Huainanzi).[40][41]

Thejiaodid eventuallymetamorphoseinto a form built to fly, according toRen Fang[zh]'sShuyi ji[zh]( "Records of Strange Things" ), which said that "a water snake (huiHủy) after 500 years transforms into ajiao(Giao); ajiaoafter a millennium into a dragon (long), alongafter 500 years a horned dragon (GiácLong), a horned dragon after a millennium into ayinglong(a winged dragon) ".[32][42][j]

General descriptions[edit]

ThehujiaoHổ giaoor "tigerjiao"[k]are described as creatures with a body like a fish and a tail like a snake, which made noise likemandarin ducks.Although this might be considered a subtype of thejiaodragon, a later commentator thought this referred to a type of fish (see#Sharks and rayssection).[29]

The foregoing account occurs in the early Chinese bestiaryShanhaijing"Classic of Mountains and Seas" (completed c. 206–9 BCE), in its first book "Classic of the Southern Mountains".[44][l][m]

The bestiary's fifth book, "Classic of the Central Mountains"[n][45]records the presence ofjiaoin the Kuang River (HuốngThủy,"River Grant" ) and Lun River (LuânThủy,"River Ripple" ).[46][o]Guo Pu(d. 324)'s commentary to Part XI glossesjiaoas "a type of [longLong] dragon that resembles a four-legged snake ".[48]Guo adds that thejiaopossesses a "small head and a narrow neck with a white goiter" and that it is oviparous, and "large ones were more than ten arm spans in width[p]and could swallow a person whole ".[36][50]

A description similar to this is found in thePiyadictionary, but instead of a white "goiter (ying) "being found on its neck, a homophone noun of a different meaning is described, rendered" white necklace "around its neck by Visser.[15]Other sources concurs with the latter word meaning white "necklace" (or variously translated as white "tassels" ), namely, theBencao Gangmuquoting at length fromGuangzhou Ji(Quảng Châu nhớ) by Pei Yuan (Bùi Uyên,317–420):[q]

A later text describedjiao"looks like a snake with a tiger head, is several fathoms long, lives in brooks and rivers, and bellows like a bull; when it sees a human being it traps him with its stinking saliva, then pulls him into the water and sucks his blood from his armpits". This description, in theMoke huixiMặc khách huy tê(11th century CE), was considered the "best definition" of ajiaobyWolfram Eberhard.[48]

Scales[edit]

The description as "scaly" or "scaled dragon" is found in some medieval texts, and quoted in several near-modern references and dictionaries.

TheGuangya(3rd century CE) definesjiaolongas "scaly dragon; scaled dragon", using the wordlinLân"scales".[51]The paragraph, which goes on to list other types of dragons, was quoted in theKangxi Dictionarycompiled during the Manchurian Qing dynasty.[51]A similar paragraph occurs in theShuyi ji[zh](6th century) and quoted in theBencao GangmuakaCompendium of Materia Medica:[34]

Aquatic nature[edit]

Several texts allude to thejiaobeing the lord of aquatic beings. Thejiaolongis called the "god of the water animals".[54][s]TheShuowen jiejidictionary (beginning of 2nd c.) states that if the number of fish in a pond reaches 3600, ajiaowill come as their leader, and enable them to follow him and fly away ".[32]However, "if you place a fish trap in the water, thejiaowill leave ".[33]A similar statement occurs in the farming almanacQimin Yaoshu(6th c.) that quotes theYangyu-jing"Classic on Raising Fish", a manual onpiscicultureascribed to Lord Tao Zhu (Fan Li).[56]According to thisYangyu-jingversion, when the fish count reaches 360, thejiaowill lead them away, but this could be prevented by keepingbieBa ba(variant characterMiết,"soft-shelled turtle" ).[t][57][58]

Jiaoandjiaolongwere names for a legendary river dragon.JiaoGiaois sometimes translated as "flood dragon". The (c. 1105 CE)Yuhu qinghuaNgọc hồ thanh lời nóiCarr says people in the southern state ofWucalled itfahongPhát hồng"swell into a flood" because they believed flooding resulted whenjiaohatched.[59]The poemQi gian( "Seven Remonstrances" ) in theChu Ciuses the termshuijiaoThủy giaoor waterjiao.[60][u]

Hornlessness[edit]

TheShuowen Jiezidoes not commit to whether thejiāoGiaohas or lacks a horn.[v][33]However the definition was emended to "hornless dragon" byDuan Yucaiin his 19th-century edited version.([61]A somewhat later commentary byZhu Junsheng[zh]stated the contrary; in hisShuowen tongxun dingsheng(Nói văn thông huấn định thanh) Zhu Junsheng explained that only male dragons (long) were horned, and "among dragon offspring, the one-horned are calledjiāoGiao,thebicornedare calledqiúCầu,and the hornless are calledchìLi.[62]

Note the pronunciation similarity betweenjiāoGiaoandjiǎoGiác"horn", thusjiǎolóngGiác longis "horned dragon".[w]

Female gender[edit]

Lexicographershave noticed that according to some sources, thejiaowas a dragoness, that is, a dragon of exclusively female gender.[13][x]

Jiaoas female dragon occurs in the glossing ofjiaoGiaoas "dragon mother" (perhaps "dragoness" or "she-dragon" ) in the (c. 649 CE) Buddhist dictionaryYiqiejing yinyi,[y]and the gloss is purported to be a direct quote fromGe Hong(d. 343)'sBaopuziBão Phác Tử.[3]However, extant editions of the Baopuzi does not include this statement.[citation needed]The (11th century CE)Piyadictionary repeats this "female dragon" definition.[dubious–discuss]

Records of hunt[edit]

Lü Dongbinconfronting ajiaolong-dragon, fromDeng Zhimo'sThe Flying Sword(Phi kiếm nhớ)

As aforementioned,jiaois fully capable of devouring humans, according to Guo Pu's commentary.[39][50]

It is also written that a greenjiaowhich was a man-eater dwelt in the stream beneath the bridge inYi xing County[zh](present-day city ofYi xing,Jiangsu) according to a story inZu Taizhi[zh](Tổ đài chi;fl. c. 376–410)'s anthology,Zhiguai.[38]The war-generalZhou Chu(Chu chỗ;236–297) in his youth, who was native to this area, anecdotally slew this dragon: when Zhou spotted the man-eating beast he leaped down from the bridge and stabbed it several times; the stream was filled with blood and the beast finally washed up somewhere inLake Taiwhere it finally died.[38]This anecdote is also recounted in theShishuo Xinyu(c. 430; "A New Account of Tales of the World")[28]and selected in theTangperiod primerMengqiu[zh].[38]

Other early texts also mention the hunt or capture of thejiao.Emperor Wu of HaninYuanfeng5 or 106 BCE reportedly shot ajiaoin the river.[63][59][39]TheShiyijiNhặt của rơi nhớ(4th century CE) has ajiaostory aboutEmperor Zhao of Han(r. 87-74 BCE). While fishing in theWei River,he

...caught a whitekiao,threechang[ten meters] long, which resembled a big snake, but had no scaly armour The Emperor said: 'This is not a lucky omen', and ordered the Ta kwan[z]to make a condiment of it. Its flesh was purple, its bones were blue, and its taste was very savoury and pleasant.[15]

Three classical texts (Liji6,[64]Huainanzi5, andLüshi Chunqiu6) repeat a sentence about capturing water creatures at the end of summer;Phạt giao lấy đà đăng quy lấy giải"attack thejiaoGiao,take thetoĐà"alligator", present theguiQuy"tortoise", and take theyuanGiải"soft-shell turtle". "

Dragon boat festival[edit]

Further information:Dragon Boat Festival

There is a legend surrounding theDragon Boat Festivalwhich purports to be the origin behind the offering ofzongzi(leaf-wrapped rice cakes) to the drowned noblemanQu Yuanduring its observation. It is said that at the beginning of theEastern Han dynasty(25 A. D.), a man fromChangshanamed Ou Hui had a vision in a dream of Qu Yuan instructing him that the naked rice cakes being offered for him in the river are all being eaten by the dragons (jiaolong), and the cakes need to be wrapped in chinaberry (Melia;Chinese:Luyện;pinyin:liàn) leaves and tied with color strings, which are two things the dragons abhor.[65][66][aa]

Southern origins[edit]

It has been suggested that thejiaois not a creature ofSiniticorigin, but something introduced from the Far South orYueculture,[69]which encompasses the people of the ancientYueCàngstate), as well as theHundred Yuepeople.[70]

Eberhardconcludes (1968:378-9) that thejiao,which "occur in the whole of Central and South China", "is a special form of the snake as river god. The snake as river god or god of the ocean is typical for the coastal culture, particularly the sub-group of the Tan peoples (theTanka people) ". Schafer also suggests," The Chinese lore about these southern krakens seems to have been borrowed from the indigenes of the monsoon coast ".[71]

Theonomasticssurrounding theLong Biên District(now inHanoi,Vietnam) is that it was so-named from ajialong"flood dragon" seen coiled in the river (Shui jing zhuor theCommentary on the Water Classic37).[26][72][73]

It is recorded that in southern China, there had been the custom of wearingtattoosto ward against thejiaolong.The people in Kuaiji (old capital ofYue;present-dayShao xingCity) adopted such a custom during theXia dynastyaccording to theBook of Wei(3rd c.).[ab][ac][74][75][76]The Yue created this "apotropaic device"[77]by incising their flesh and tattooing it with red and green pigments.[78][79][80]

Identification as real fauna[edit]

Thejiaoseems to refer to "crocodiles", at least in later literature of theTangandSongdynasties, and may have referred to "crocodiles" in early literature as well.[69]

Aside from thiszoologicalidentification,paleontologicalidentifications have also been attempted.

Crocodile or alligator[edit]

The termjiao eor "jiaocrocodile "(Giao cá sấu;Tang period pronunciation: kău ngak)[81][ad]occurs in the description ofHan Yu's encounter with crocodiles according toZhang Du[zh]'sXuanshi zhi[zh]or "Records of the House of Proclamation" written in the late Tang period.[83][84][ae]

As noted theCompendium of Materia Medicaidentifiesjiaowith SanskritCungBìLa,[4][85]i.e.,kumbhīra[7]which denotes a long-snoutedcrocodylid.[8]The 19th-centuryherpetologistAlbert-Auguste Fauvelconcurred, stating thatjiaolongreferred to a crocodile orgavialcladeof animals.[86]

TheCompendiumalso differentiates betweenjiaolongGiao long[4]andtuolongĐàLong,[87]Fauvel adding thattuolong(Đà;t'o2) should be distinguished as "alligator".[86][88]

Fossil creatures[edit]

Fauvelnoted that thejiaoresembled the dinosaur genusIguanodon,[af]adding that fossil teeth were being peddled byChinese medicineshops at the time(1879:8).[89]

Sharks and rays[edit]

In the foregoing example of thehuijiaoin the "Classic of the Southern Mountains" III,[44]the 19th-century sinologist treated this a type of dragon, the "tigerkiao",[43]while a modern translator as "tiger-crocodile".[30]However, there is also an 18–19th-century opinion that this might have been a shark. AQing dynastyperiod commentator,Hao Yi xing[zh]suggested thathuijiaoshould be identified asjiaocuoGiao sai[ag]described in theBowuzhiBác Vật Chí,[29][91]and thisjiaocuoin turn is considered to be a type of shark.[29][93]

As in the above examplejiaoGiaomay be substituted forjiaoGiao"shark" in some contexts.[92]

ThejiaoGiaodenotes largersharks and rays,[94]the character for sharks (and rays) in general beingshaCá mập,so-named ostensibly due to their skin being gritty and sand-like[ah][ai]Compare the supposed quote from theBaopuzi,where it is stated that thejialongis said to have "pearls in the skin"Da có châu.[3][92]

Schafer quotes aSong dynastydescription, "Thekău(jiao) fish has the aspect of a round fan. Its mouth is square and is in its belly. There is a sting in its tail which is very poisonous and hurtful to men. Its skin can be made into sword grips ", which may refer to asting ray.[99]

Derivative names[edit]

Usage[edit]

Jiaolong occurs in Chinesetoponyms.For example, the highest waterfall inTaiwanis Jiaolong Dapu (Giao long đại thác nước), "Flood Dragon Great Waterfall" in theAlishanNational Scenic Area.

The deep-seasubmersiblebuilt and tested in 2010 by theChina Ship Scientific Research Centeris namedJiaolong(Broad 2010:A1).

See also[edit]

Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ^For example,shenThậnor mirage dragon andhongHồng) or rainbow dragon.
  2. ^But the singlekanjicharacterGiaocan also be read Japanese-style (kun'yomi) as "mizuchi"which denotes aJapanese river dragon
  3. ^The Buddhist dictionary purports to quote theBaopuziBão Phác Tử.
  4. ^The transliterationsCung bì laandCung bì laare interchangeable.[5]The characters "Bì"and"Bì"are variants of each other.
  5. ^Cung bì la(Japanese:Kubira[ja]) is attested in eastern Buddhist writings, as one of theTwelve Heavenly Generals.Cf. the Guardian Deity Kimbila (pinyin:Jinpiluo wang) who is one of theTwenty-eight Guardians[zh].[6]
  6. ^Shuyi Ji,quoted in theBencao Gangmu.The passage is quoted below.
  7. ^The same is stated in the aforementionedPiya,but translated differently as eyebrows that are "united" (Giaojiao) inVisser[de]'s excerpt.[15][2]
  8. ^The dragon supposedly witness by the fatherTaigong(T'ai-kung.)
  9. ^Birrell 2000,pp. 93, 97 also renders as "alligator"; but her endnote (p. 198) indicates "alligator" was meant to be reserved for a different creature, thet'o(tuoĐà), which conforms withRead tr. 1934,p. 300 andFauvel 1879,p. 8.
  10. ^Compare the explanation that "smaller ones are calledjiaoand larger ones are calledlong(dragon) "byWang Yi(d. 158 CE) in his commentary to the poemLi Saoin theChu Ci.[22]
  11. ^Visser renders as "tigerkiao".[43]Birrell renders as "tiger-crocodiles".[30]
  12. ^Shanhaijing Book 1.III
  13. ^As to habitat, these tigerjiaowere said to inhabit theYin River[zh-yue](NgânThủy,"River Bank" ) which flows southward from Mt. DaoguoĐảoQuáSơn.[30][43]Birrel renders Yin River as "River Bank" and the mountain as "Mount Prayerpass". Visser mis-transcribes as "LãngThủy"and renders as" water come forth in waves "" out of the Tao Kuo mountains ".
  14. ^Shanhaijing Book 5.XI
  15. ^Birrell rendersjiaohere as "alligators" which is misleading since in the endnotes she glosses alligator ast'o(i.e.tuoĐà).[47]Cf.Read tr. 1934,p. 300, table. "Chiao LungGiao longCrocodiles "and" T'o LungĐàLongAlligators "
  16. ^Although it is being translated as a measure of width,weiVâyis actually a measure ofperimeter.[49]
  17. ^A white "goiter" (Anh;ying) in theClassic of Mountains and Seas;a white "necklace" or "tassels" (Anh;ying) inPiyaand theBencao Gangmu.
  18. ^The quote here is slightly modified, as per capitalization, etc., from Luo's rendition.
  19. ^The thrust of the original passage in the philosophical work[55]is that circumstances dictate,[25]or more specifically, a dragon (or tiger, etc.) can manifest its full power when it is in its elements.[27]
  20. ^TheYangyu-jingis also quoted in the Qing period encyclopediaYuan gian LeihanUyên giam loại hàmaccording to Minakata.
  21. ^"Henceforth the water-serpents must be my companions, And dragon-spirits lie with me when I would rest".[citation needed]
  22. ^It defineschiLias hornless andqiúCầuas horned.
  23. ^An example occurs inGe Hong'sBaopuzi(10, tr. Ware 1966:170) "the horned dragon can no longer find a place to swim". TheJiǎolóngGiác long"horned dragon" is also the modern Chinese name for theCeratopsdinosaur.
  24. ^Carr gives 7 definitions as follows: "Jiao< *kǒgGiaois defined with more meanings than any other Chinese draconym ", writes Carr (1990:126)," (1) 'aquatic dragon', (2) 'crocodile; alligator', (3) 'hornless dragon', (4) 'dragoness', (5) 'scaled dragon', ( 6 ) 'shark' [=Giao], and (7) 'mermaid' ".
  25. ^25 volumes were compiled by XuanyingHuyền ứng.Later, an expanded 100 volume editionYiqiejing Yinyi (Huilin)was compiled by HuilinTuệ lâm(c. 807).
  26. ^Đại quandaguan,an important official.
  27. ^The source of this is the 6th-century work byWu Jun[zh](Chinese:Ngô đều;Wade–Giles:Wu chün) entitledXu Qixieji(Chinese:『 tục tề hài nhớ 』;Wade–Giles:Hsü-ch'ih-hsieh-chih).[66][67]In several redactions such as found in theTaiping Yulanthe man's name appears as Ou Hui (Âu hồi);[67]in other redactions, the man is called Ou Qu (Âu khúc).[67][68]
  28. ^"AfterShao Kang,king ofXiamade his son prince of Kuaiji, the people there adopted the custom of cutting their hair and tattooing their bodies to avert harm from thejialongHạ sau thiếu khang chi tử phong với Hội Kê, cắt tóc xâm mình để tránh giao long chi hại".Gulik renders as" evil dragons "; Teng as" sea monsters ".
  29. ^More specifically, the portion inBook of Weidescribing theWa(the Japanese). It follows by commenting on a similar tattooing custom among the Wa.
  30. ^Cf.Late Middle Chinese:kaɨw ŋak.[82]
  31. ^Albeit the creatures are referred to merely as "crocodile" or "crocodile fish" in Han Yu's own work, theE yu wen(Ngạc cá văn) "Message to Crocodiles".[83]
  32. ^Although the conception of iguanodon as appearing crocodile-like is outdated.
  33. ^Giao 䱜In later printed editions ofBowuzhi[90]
  34. ^Chinese letter for sand isshaSa;Sa.[95][96]A description that is often repeated about the shark is that its skin has a pearl-like texture or pattern, and that the skin (shagreen) is used to decorate swords.[92][96]
  35. ^ThusJoseph Needhamconstrues as "patterned with pearls" regarding shark skin for a similar example in theJiaozhou ji(Chinese:Giao châu nhớ;Wade–Giles:Chia-chou Chi).[97]However the presence of "pearls in the skin", literally, might have been actually meant since there was a belief since the Song Period that pearls were produced from shark skin.[98]

References[edit]

Citations

  1. ^Minakata 1917"Year of the Snake";Minakata 1973,p. 286 "WhenPiyastates its poplular name ismaban,it probably means a horse (ma) cannot be left tethered (ban)『 bì nhã 』にそ の tục xưng mã vướng とあるは, mã を vướng つなぎ lưu めて hành かしめぬてふ nghĩa であろう."
  2. ^abc"Book 1" jiao ""Cuốn 01 “Giao”.Piya (Siku Quanshu edition)Bì nhã ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )– viaWikisource.
  3. ^abcXuanying(c. 649)."Ch. 9. Banzhou sanmei jing"Thuyền tam muội kinh.Yiqiejing yinyi Book 5Hết thảy kinh ý nghĩa và âm đọc của chữ cuốn thứ năm.Jialong: in Sanskrit guanpiluo, pronounced jiao. Scaled ones are calledjiaodragon.Baopuzi:mother dragons are calledjiao,dragon offspring [or dragonets] are calledqiu.Its form is like unto a fish's body with a snake's tail; its skin is [studded] with pearl[y beads]Giao long: Phạn ngôn cung bì la, âm giao. Có lân rằng giao long. 《 Bão Phác Tử 》 rằng: Mẫu long rằng giao, long tử rằng cầu. Này trạng cá thân như đuôi rắn, da có châu.
  4. ^abc"jiaolongGiao long",Li Shizhen 1596"(Animals with) Scales I";Li Shizhen 1782"Vol. 43 (Animals with) Scales",Bencao Gangmu;Luo tr. 2003,p. 3497;Read tr. 1934,pp. 314–318
  5. ^abMōri, Hisashi (1980).Nihon butsuzōshi kenkyūNhật Bản tượng Phật sử nghiên cứu.Hōzōkan. p. 96.
  6. ^Rösch, Petra (2007).Chinese Wood Sculptures of the 11th to 13th centuries.Columbia University Press.pp. 116–117.ISBN978-3-83825-662-7.
  7. ^ab"Kubira"Cung bì la ( đọc み ) クビラ.Digital Daijisen.Shogakukan. 2019.{{cite encyclopedia}}:|script-work=ignored (help)via Kotobank accessed 2019-07-30
  8. ^abParpola, Asko(2011), Osada, Toshiki; Endo, ToshikiHitoshi (eds.),"Crocodile in the Indus Civilization and later South Asian traditions"(PDF),Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past,Occasional Paper 12, Kyoto, Japan: Research Institute for Humanity and Nature nhân gian văn hóa nghiên cứu cơ cấu tổng hợp địa cầu hoàn cảnh học viện nghiên cứu,ISBN978-4-902325-67-6
  9. ^abSchuessler 2007,p. 308.
  10. ^Pulleyblank 2011,p. 150.
  11. ^Schafer 1967,pp. 32, 217–218, 345.
  12. ^Visser 1913,pp. 76–81.
  13. ^abCarr 1990,p. 126.
  14. ^Luo tr. 2003,p. 3508.
  15. ^abcdVisser 1913,p. 79.
  16. ^abWang, Huaiyu (2015)."The Chinese totem of dragon and the greek myth of oedipus: a comparative psychoanalytic study".International Communication of Chinese Culture.2(3): 259–283.doi:10.1007/s40636-015-0025-y.
  17. ^Wen 2001a:95-96 apudWang 2015).[16]
  18. ^abcSsu-Ma Ch'ien (Sima Qian)(1994).Nienhauser, William H. Jr.(ed.).The Grand Scribe's Records.Vol. 2. Translated by Weiguo Cao; Scott W. Galer; William H. Nienhauser; David W. Pankenier. Indiana University Press.ISBN0-25334-022-5.,p. xvii (compare texts), p. 1 and note 4 (jiaolongtranslated as "kraken" ).
  19. ^Wen 1956,pp. 18–19 apudCarr 1990,p. 127.
  20. ^abChō 2002,p. 180.
  21. ^Visser 1913,pp. 77–78.
  22. ^abWang, Yi."Book 1".Chuchi zhangjuSở Từ chương cú cuốn 01– viaWikisource.【 huy giao long sử lương tân hề, 】 nhấc tay rằng huy. Tiểu rằng giao, đại rằng long.
  23. ^Cf.Hawkes 1985,p. 78: "Then, beckoning the water-dragons to make a bridge for me".
  24. ^Schafer 1967,pp. 217–218: "Spiritually akin to the crocodile, and perhaps originally the same reptile, was a mysterious creature capable of many forms called thechiao(kău). Most often it was regarded as a kind oflung– a "dragon" as we say. But sometimes it was manlike, and sometimes it was merely a fish. All of its realizations were interchangeable ".
  25. ^abKuan Feng; Lin Lü-shih (1970).On Kuan Chung's System of Thought.Vol. 1. p. 263.{{cite encyclopedia}}:|journal=ignored (help)
  26. ^abTaylor, K. W. (1995)."Perceptions of Encounter in Shui Ching Chu 37".Asia Journal.2(1): 42.JSTOR43105705
  27. ^abLanders, James (1992).Readings in Classical Chinese: with notes and translations.SMC Publishing (Nantian shuju) nam thiên thư cục. p. 15.ISBN9789576381263.
  28. ^abLiu Yiqing (2017).Shih-shuo Hsin-yu: A New Account of Tales of the World.Translated byRichard B. Mather(Second ed.).University of Michigan Press.pp. 341–.ISBN978-1-938-93701-9.
  29. ^abcdKnechtges 1987,p. 16.
  30. ^abcdBirrell 2000,p. 8.
  31. ^Read tr. 1934,p. 300, tabulated glossary
  32. ^abcNakano 1983,p. 76.
  33. ^abcXu Shen hứa thận."Book 13".Shuowen jieziThuyết Văn Giải Tự cuốn mười ba– viaWikisource.
  34. ^abLi Shizhen 1596"(Category of Animals with) Scales" I;Li Shizhen 1782,Volume 43;Luo tr. 2003,p. 3508
  35. ^Luo tr. 2003,p. 3497. With some exceptions, like theviper.
  36. ^ab"Wu Renchen's commentaries on Classic of Central Mountains XI"Ngô nhậm thần chú trung sơn kinh: Trung thứ một mười một.Shanhaijing guangzhu expanded commentaries (Siku Quanshu edition)/Book 5Sơn Hải Kinh quảng chú ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )/ cuốn 05.1782 – viaWikisource.Quách rằng tựa xà mà bốn chân tiểu đầu tế cổ cổ có bạch anh đại giả hơn mười vây trứng như một vài thạch ung có thể nuốt người
  37. ^Chō 2002,p. 181.
  38. ^abcdTominaga 1993,pp. 156–157.
  39. ^abcDubs tr. 1954,p. 94.
  40. ^Major et al. tr. 2010,pp.799–800,20.6.
  41. ^HuainanziHoài Nam TửThứ hai mươi thái tộc huấn:"Giao long phục tẩm với uyên mà trứng mổ với lăng".
  42. ^Yuan 1998,p. 287.
  43. ^abcVisser 1913,p. 76.
  44. ^ab"Part III".Shanhaijing /ZhongshanjingSơn Hải Kinh / trung sơn kinh– viaWikisource.
  45. ^"Part XI".Shanhaijing /ZhongshanjingSơn Hải Kinh / trung sơn kinh– viaWikisource.
  46. ^Birrell 2000,pp. 93, 97.
  47. ^Birrell 2000,p. 198.
  48. ^abEberhard 1968,p. 378.
  49. ^Zhao Lu (2019).In Pursuit of the Great Peace: Han Dynasty Classicism and the Making of Early Medieval Literati Culture.SUNY Press.p. 230 note 43.ISBN978-1-43847-493-9.
  50. ^abStrassberg, Richard E., ed. (2018)."Six-headed bird (liushouniao) sáu đầu điểu and jiao-dragon (jiao) giao".A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from theGuideways Through Mountains and Seas.University of California Press.p. 195.ISBN978-0-52029-851-4.
  51. ^abChapin, Helen Burwell (1940).Toward the Study of the Sword as Dynastic Talisman: The Feng-ch'eng Pair and the Sword of Han Kao Tsu.University of California, Berkeley. p. 91.:"See the quotation from theQuảng nhãKuang-yain theK'ang-hsi:'Those (dragons) that have scales are calledGiao longchiao-lung(i.e.jiaolong); those that have wings,Ứng 〃ying-lung;those that have horns,Cù 〃ch'iu-lung;those that have no horns,Li 〃ch'ih-lung;those that have not yet risen to Heaven,Li 〃p'an-lung'".
  52. ^"Keisei-kai (Xingshijie; commentary to Conditions and Circumstances)"Tình thế giải 64.Kanshi kokujikai ge-kanCái ống quốc tự giải hạ quyển[Guangzi commentaries in Japanese Vol. 2]. Hán tịch quốc tự giải toàn thư: Nhà hiền triết di Kanseki kokuji-kai zensho: Sentetsu icho tsuiho [Supplement to the complete commentaries in Japanese of Chinese classical literature] 19. Waseda University. 1911. p. 110.
  53. ^Visser 1913,p. 77.
  54. ^Commentary toGuanzi;[52][53]
  55. ^"Keisei (Xingshi; Conditions and Circumstances)"Tình thế 2.Kanshi kokujikai jō-kanCái ống quốc tự giải thượng quyển[Guangzi commentaries in Japanese Vol. 1]. Hán tịch quốc tự giải toàn thư: Nhà hiền triết di Kanseki kokuji-kai zensho: Sentetsu icho tsuiho [Supplement to the complete commentaries in Japanese of Chinese classical literature] 18. Waseda University. 1911. p. 43.
  56. ^Jia Sixie giả tư hiệp."Book 6".Qimin YaoshuTề dân muốn thuật– viaWikisource.
  57. ^Kumagusu, Minakata(1926)."Suppon to kaminari"Miết と lôi[Soft-shelled turtle and lightning)].Minakata zuihitsuPhương nam tuỳ bút.Oka Shoin. p. 306.
  58. ^An incomplete quote is given byVisser 1913,p. 76.
  59. ^abCarr 1990,p. 128.
  60. ^Hawkes 1985,p. 255.
  61. ^Ōgata 1983,pp. 76–77.
  62. ^Li Muru et al. 1998,p. 368.
  63. ^Hanshu;6.
  64. ^Legge 1885,p. 277, vol. 1.
  65. ^Chi, Hsing (Qi Xing) (1988).Folk Customs at Traditional Chinese Festivities.Foreign Languages Press.p. 39.ISBN9780835115933.dragon in the river
  66. ^abChi, Hsing (Qi Xing) (2000)."Chu Yuan".Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism.Vol. 36.Gale Research Company.pp. 125, 95 (in brief), 132 (notes).ISBN0-78764-378-5.:"chiao-lung"
  67. ^abcSenbō, Sachiko trước phường hạnh tử (2011-09-20),"Chūgoku koshosetsu yakuchū: Zoku sseikaiki"Trung Quốc cổ tiểu thuyết 訳 chú: 『 tục tề hài nhớ 』(PDF),Studies of Chinese Literature of the Middle Age(59), Hiroshima University: 80–120
  68. ^Yifa(2002).The Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China: An Annotated Translation and Study of the Chanyuan Qinggui.University of Hawaii Press.p. 241, note 298.ISBN9780824824945.
  69. ^abClark 2016,pp. 106–107 andChittick 2016,endnote 34.
  70. ^Brindley, Erica F. (2016),Mair, Victor H.(ed.),"Layers of Meaning: Hairstyle and Yue Identity in Ancient Chinese Texts",Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours,Flipside Digital Content Company Inc., pp. 27–28,ISBN978-9-814-62055-0
  71. ^Schafer 1973,p. 26.
  72. ^Li Daoyuan Lệ nói nguyên."Book 37".Shui Jing Zhu (Siku Quanshu edition)Thủy kinh chú thích ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )– viaWikisource.
  73. ^Schafer 1973,p. 32.
  74. ^"Book of Wei 30"Ngụy thư 30.Sanguo zhiTam Quốc Chí[Records of the Three Kingdoms] – viaWikisource.
  75. ^Gulik, Willem R. van (1982).Irezumi: The Pattern of Dermatography in Japan.Brill. p. 247.
  76. ^Teng, Jun (2018).The History of Sino-Japanese Cultural Exchange.Routledge. p. 54.ISBN978-1-351-26910-0.
  77. ^abReed, Carrie Elizabeth (June 2000a)."Early Chinese Tattoo"(PDF).Sino-Platonic Papers.120(103): 1–52 [7].
    •Reed, Carrie E. (Jul–Sep 2000b)."Tattoo in Early China".Journal of the American Oriental Society.120(3): 360–376 [362].doi:10.2307/606008.JSTOR606008.
  78. ^Treatise on Geographyin theBook of Han,111CE, quoted byKong Yingda.
  79. ^Kong Yingda(6th c.),Lizi ZhengyiLễ Ký chính nghĩa12.15b or 16b apudReed 2000a,p. 7;Reed 2000b,p. 362.[77]
  80. ^Kong Yingda."Book 12".Liji zhengyiLễ Ký chính nghĩa.Zheng Xuan Trịnh huyền, annot. – viaWikisource.Zhengyi says, considering theHan shuDili zhi(Geography treatise)'s text that the Yue people crop their hair and tattoo their bodies, thus averting harm fromjiaolong,etc.Chính nghĩa rằng: Ấn 《 Hán Thư • địa lý chí 》 văn, càng tục cắt tóc xâm mình, lấy tích giao long chi hại, cố khắc này cơ, lấy đan thanh niết chi
  81. ^Schafer 1967,p. 345.
  82. ^Pulleyblank 2011,pp. 87, 150.
  83. ^abClark 2016,pp. 107–108 and notes 43, 44.
  84. ^Zhang Du trương đọc (1777)."Book 1 cuốn 05".Xuanshi zhi (Siku Quanshu edition)Tuyên thất chí ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )– viaWikisource.
  85. ^Cung bì lais equivalent toCung bì lawhen you swap out one character into a variant form.[5]
  86. ^abFauvel 1879,p. 8.
  87. ^"tuolongĐà long",Li Shizhen 1596"(Animals with) Scales I";Li Shizhen 1782"Vol. 43 (Animals with) Scales",Bencao Gangmu;Luo tr. 2003,p. 3509 identifies asAlligator sinensisFauvel, with synonymtuoyu(Đà cá) andtulong(Thổ long);Read tr. 1934,pp. 314–318
  88. ^As doesRead tr. 1934,p. 300, tabulated glossary.
  89. ^Cf.Read tr. 1934,p. 301 noting the similarity of the Sanskrit name togonglongWade–Giles:kung-lungforNaosauruslisted inZN,Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature.
  90. ^Zhang Hua(1997).BowuzhiBác Vật Chí.Năm nam sách báo xuất bản cổ phần công ty hữu hạn. p. 102.ISBN9789578499409.
  91. ^Hao Yi xing;Guo Pu,eds. (1809)."Shanhaijing Book 1".Shanhaijin gian shuSơn Hải Kinh tiên sơ[Guideways through the Mountains and Seas with supplementary commentary] (in Chinese). Yangzhou: Langhuan xianguan lang hoàn tiên quán. p. 10.
  92. ^abcdXuanying huyền ứng(c. 649)."Ch. 52. Modengqie mô đen già kinh".Yiqiejing yinyi Book 13Hết thảy kinh ý nghĩa và âm đọc của chữ cuốn thứ năm.
  93. ^Cf. Guo Pu glossesjiaoGiaoas a type ofcuo䱜.[92]
  94. ^Williams 1889,p. 368.
  95. ^Williams 1889,p. 730.
  96. ^ab"jiaoyuGiao cá",Li Shizhen 1596"(Animals with) Scales IV";Li Shizhen 1782"Vol. 43 (Animals with) Scales",Bencao Gangmu;Luo tr. 2003,p. 3613
  97. ^Needham, Joseph(1971),Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology,Cambridge University Press, p. 677,ISBN9780521070607
  98. ^Nakano 1983,p. 143.
  99. ^Schafer 1967,p. 221.

Bibliography

External links[edit]

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