Book of Judith

"Judith" redirects here. For other uses, seeJudith (disambiguation).

Judith with the Head of Holophernes,byCristofano Allori,1613 (Royal Collection,London)

Judith with the Head of Holophernes,bySimon Vouet,(Alte Pinakothek,Munich)

Caravaggio'sJudith Beheading Holofernes

Judith and Holophernes,byMichelangelo,(Sistine Chapel,Vatican City)

TheBook of Judithis adeuterocanonicalbook included in theSeptuagintand theCatholicandEastern OrthodoxChristianOld Testamentof theBiblebutexcluded from the Hebrew canonand assigned byProtestantsto theapocrypha.It tells of aJewishwidow, Judith, who uses her beauty and charm to kill anAssyriangeneral who has besieged her city,Bethulia.With this act, she saves nearbyJerusalemfrom total destruction. The name Judith (Hebrew:יְהוּדִית,Modern:Yəhūdīt,Tiberian:Yŭhūḏīṯ), meaning "praised" or "Jewess",is the feminine form ofJudah.

The surviving manuscripts of Greek translations appear to contain several historicalanachronisms,which is why some Protestant scholars now consider the book ahistorical. Instead, the book is classified as aparable,theological novel,or even the firsthistorical novel.TheRoman Catholic Churchhas historically maintained that the book'shistoricity,assigning its events to the reign ofKing Manasseh of Judahand that the names were changed in later centuries for an unknown reason.TheJewish EncyclopediaidentifiesShechem(modern dayNablus) as "Bethulia", and argues that the name was changed because of the feud between the Jews andSamaritans.If this is the case, it would explain why other names seem anachronistic as well.

Historical context

Original language

It is not clear whether the Book of Judith was originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic or Greek, as the oldest existing version is from theSeptuagint,a Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. However, due to the large number of Hebraisms in the text, it is generally agreed that the book was written in aSemitic language,probablyHebreworAramaic,rather thanKoine Greek.When Jerome did his LatinVulgatetranslation, he asserted his belief that the book was written "in Chaldean (Aramaic) words".Jerome's Latin translation was based on an Aramaic manuscript and was shorter because he omitted passages that he could not read or understand in the Aramaic that otherwise existed in the Septuagint. The Aramaic manuscript used by Jerome has long since beenlost.

Carey A. Moore argued that the Greek text of Judith was a translation from a Hebrew original, and used many examples of conjectured translation errors, Hebraic idioms, and Hebraic syntax.The extant Hebrew manuscripts are very late and only date back to theMiddle Ages.The two surviving Hebrew manuscripts of Judith are translated from the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate.

The Hebrew versions name important figures directly, such as theSeleucidkingAntiochus IV Epiphanes,and place the events during theHellenistic periodwhen theMaccabeesbattled the Seleucid monarchs. However, because the Hebrew manuscripts mention kingdoms that had not existed for hundreds of years by the time of the Seleucids, it is unlikely that these were the original names in the text.Jeremy Corley argued that Judith was originally composed in Greek that was carefully modeled after Hebrew and pointed out "Septuagintalisms" in the vocabulary and phrasing of the Greek text.

Canonicity

See also:Development of the Christian biblical canonandJewish canon

In Judaism

While the author was likely Jewish, there is no evidence aside from its inclusion in theSeptuagintthat the Book of Judith was ever considered authoritative or a candidate for canonicity by any Jewish group.TheMasoretic Textof theHebrew Bibledoes not contain it; it is not found among theDead Sea Scrollsor any early Rabbinic literature.Speculated reasons for its exclusion include the possible lateness of its composition, possible Greek origin, apparent support of theHasmonean dynasty(to which the early rabbinate was opposed), and perhaps the brash and seductive character of Judith herself.

After disappearing from circulation among Jews for over a millennium, however, references to the Book of Judith and the figure of Judith herself resurfaced in the religious literature ofcrypto-Jewswho escaped Christian persecution after the capitulation of theCaliphate of Córdoba.The renewed interest took the form of "tales of the heroine, liturgical poems, commentaries on the Talmud, and passages in Jewish legal codes."Although the text does not mentionHanukkah,it became customary for a Hebrewmidrashicvariant of the Judith story to be read on theShabbatof Hanukkah as the story of Hanukkah takes place during the time of the Hasmonean dynasty.

That midrash, whose heroine is portrayed as gorging the antagonist on cheese and wine before cutting off his head, may have formed the basis of the minor Jewish tradition to eat dairy products during Hanukkah.In that respect,the Jewry of Europeduring theMiddle Agesappear to have viewed Judith as theMaccabean-Hasmoneancounterpart toQueen Esther,the heroine of the holiday ofPurim.The textual reliability of the Book of Judith was also taken for granted, to the extent that biblical commentatorNachmanides (Ramban)quoted several passages from aPeshitta(Syriac version) of Judith in support of his rendering ofDeuteronomy21:14.

In Christianity

Althoughearly Christians,such asClement of Rome,Tertullian,andClement of Alexandria,read and used the Book of Judith,some of the oldest Christian canons, including theBryennios List(1st/2nd century), that ofMelito of Sardis(2nd century), andOrigen(3rd century), do not include it.Jerome,when he produced his Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible, theVulgate,counted it among the apocrypha,(though he later changed his mind, quoted it as scripture, and said he merely expressed the views of the Jews), as didAthanasius,Cyril of Jerusalem,andEpiphanius of Salamis.

Many influentialfathersanddoctorsof the Church, includingAugustine,Basil of Caesarea,Tertullian,John Chrysostom,Ambrose,Bede the VenerableandHilary of Poitiers,considered the book sacred scripture both before and after councils that formally declared it part of the biblical canon.In a 405 letter,Pope Innocent Ideclared it part of theChristian canon.In Jerome'sPrologue to Judith,he claims that the Book of Judith was "found by theNicene Councilto have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures ". No such declaration has been found in the Canons of Nicaea, and it is uncertain whether Jerome was referring to the book's use during the council's discussion or spurious canons attributed to that council.CatholicapologistJimmy Akinspeculates that Jerome was correct about the Council of Nicea establishing a canon and that the documents about this have been lost to time.

Regardless of Judith's status at Nicaea, the book was also accepted as scripture by the councils ofRome(382),Hippo(393),Carthage(397), andFlorence(1442) and eventually dogmatically defined as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church in 1546 in theCouncil of Trent.The Eastern Orthodox Church also accepts Judith as inspired scripture; this was confirmed in theSynod of Jerusalem in 1672.The canonicity of Judith is typically rejected by Protestants, who accept as the Old Testament only those books that are found in the Jewish canon.Martin Lutherviewed the book as an allegory, but listed it as the first of the eight writings in his Apocrypha.InAnglicanism,it has the intermediate authority of the Apocrypha of the Old Testament and is regarded as useful or edifying, but is not to be taken as a basis for establishing doctrine.

Judith is also referred to in chapter 28 of1 Meqabyan,a bookconsidered canonicalin theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

Contents

Plot summary

The story revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with herJudeancountrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors. She goes with her loyal maid to the camp of the Assyrian general,Holofernes,with whom she slowly ingratiates herself, promising him information on thepeople of Israel.Gaining his trust, she is allowed access to his tent one night as he lies in a drunken stupor. She decapitates him, then takes his head back to her fearful countrymen. TheAssyrians,having lost their leader, disperse, and Israel is saved.Though she is courted by many, Judith remains unmarried for the rest of her life.

Literary structure

The Book of Judith can be split into two parts or "acts" of approximately equal length. Chapters 1–7 describe the rise of the threat to Israel, led by king Nebuchadnezzar and hissycophanticgeneral Holofernes, and is concluded as Holofernes' worldwide campaign has converged at the mountain pass where Judith's village,Bethulia,is located.Chapters 8–16 then introduce Judith and depict her heroic actions to save her people. The first part, although at times tediousin its description of the military developments, develops important themes by alternating battles with reflections and rousing action with rest. In contrast, the second half is devoted mainly to Judith's strength of character and the beheading scene.

The New Oxford Annotated Apocrypha identifies a clearchiasticpattern in both "acts", in which the order of events is reversed at a central moment in the narrative (i.e., abcc'b'a').

Judit and her maid, Artemisia Gentileschi, Italy, 1619

Part I (1:1–7:23)

A. Campaign against disobedient nations; the people surrender (1:1–2:13)

B. Israel is "greatly terrified" (2:14–3:10)

C.Joakimprepares for war (4:1–15)

D. Holofernes talks with Achior (5:1–6.9)

E. Achior is expelled by Assyrians (6:10–13)

E'. Achior is received in the village of Bethulia (6:14–15)

D'. Achior talks with the people (6:16–21)

C'. Holofernes prepares for war (7:1–3)

B'. Israel is "greatly terrified" (7:4–5)

A'. Campaign against Bethulia; the people want to surrender (7:6–32)

Part II (8:1–16:25)

A. Introduction of Judith (8:1–8)

B. Judith plans to saveIsrael(8:9–10:8), including her extendedprayer(9:1–14)

C. Judith and her maid leave Bethulia (10:9–10)

D. Judith beheads Holofernes (10:11–13:10a)

Judith Returns to Bethulia,1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

C'. Judith and her maid return to Bethulia (13.10b–11)

B'. Judith plans the destruction of Israel's enemy (13:12–16:20)

A'. Conclusion about Judith (16.1–25)

Similarly, parallels within Part II are noted in comments within theNew American Bible Revised Edition:Judith summons a town meeting in Judith 8:10 in advance of her expedition and is acclaimed by such a meeting in Judith 13:12–13; Uzziah blesses Judith in advance in Judith 8:5 and afterwards in Judith 13:18–20.

Literary genre

Most contemporaryexegetes,such as Biblical scholarGianfranco Ravasi,generally tend to ascribe Judith to one of several contemporaneous literary genres, reading it as an extended parable in the form of ahistorical fiction,or apropagandaliterary work from the days of theSeleucid oppression.

It has also been called "an example of the ancient Jewish novel in the Greco-Roman period".Other scholars note that Judith fits within and even incorporates the genre of "salvation traditions" from the Old Testament, particularly the story ofDeborahandJael(Judges4–5), who seduced and inebriated theCanaanitecommanderSiserabefore hammering a tent-peg into his forehead.

There are also thematic connections to the revenge ofSimeonandLevion Shechem after the rape ofDinahinGenesis 34.

In the Christian West from thepatristicperiod on, Judith was invoked in a wide variety of texts as a multi-faceted allegorical figure. As a "Mulier sancta",she personified the Church and manyvirtues–Humility,Justice,Fortitude,Chastity(the opposite of Holofernes'vicesPride,Tyranny,Decadence,Lust) – and she was, like the other heroic women of the Hebrew scriptural tradition, made into a typological prefiguration of the VirginMary.Her gender made her a natural example of the biblical paradox of "strength in weakness"; she is thus paired withDavidand her beheading of Holofernes paralleled with that ofGoliath– both deeds saved the Covenant People from a militarily superior enemy.

Main characters

Judith,theprotagonistof the book, introduced in chapter 8 as a God-fearing woman, she is the daughter of Merari, aSimeonite,and widow of a certainManassehor Manasses, a wealthy farmer. She sends her maid or "waitingwoman"to Uzziah to challenge his decision to capitulate to the Assyrians if God has not rescued the people of Bethulia within five days, and she uses her charm to become an intimate friend of Holofernes, but beheads him allowing Israel to counter-attack the Assyrians. Judith's maid, not named in the story, remains with her throughout the narrative and is given her freedom as the story ends.

Painting by Trophime Bigot (c. 1579–1650, also known as Master of the Candlelight), depicting Judith and Holofernes.The Walters Art Museum.

Holofernes,theantagonistof the book. He is a dedicated soldier of his king, general-in-chief of his army, whom he wants to see exalted in all lands. He is given the task of destroying the rebels who did not support the king ofNinevehin his resistance against Cheleud and theking of Media,until Israel also becomes a target of his military campaign. Judith's courage and charm occasion his death.

Nebuchadnezzar,the king of Nineveh and Assyria. He is so proud that he wants to affirm his strength as a sort of divine power, although Holofernes, his Turtan (commanding general), goes beyond the king's orders when he calls on the western nations to "worship only Nebuchadnezzar, and... invoke him as a god".Holofernes is ordered to take revenge on those who refused to ally themselves with Nebuchadnezzar.

Achior,anAmmoniteleader at Nebuchadnezzar's court; in chapter 5 he summarises thehistory of Israeland warns the king of Assyria of the power of their God, the "God of heaven",but is mocked. He is protected by the people of Bethulia and isJudaized,andcircumcisedon hearing what Judith has accomplished.

Bagoas,or Vagao (Vulgate),theeunuchwho had charge over Holofernes' personal affairs. His name is Persian for a eunuch.He brought in Judith to recline with Holofernes and was the first one who discovered his beheading.

UzziahorOziah,governor of Bethulia; together withCabriandCarmi,he rules over Judith's city. When the city is besieged by the Assyrians and the water supply dries up, he agrees to the people's call to surrender if God has not rescued them within five days, a decision challenged as "rash" by Judith.

Judith's prayer

Chapter 9 constitutes Judith's "extended prayer","loudly proclaimed" in advance of her actions in the following chapters. This runs to 14 verses in English versions, 19 verses in the Vulgate.

Historicity of Judith

EngravingbyGirolamo Mocetto,1500

Today, it is generally accepted that the Book of Judith'shistoricityis refuted. The fictional nature "is evident from its blending of history and fiction, beginning in the very first verse, and is too prevalent thereafter to be considered as the result of mere historical mistakes."The names of people are either unknown to history or appear to be anachronistic, and many of the place names are also unknown. The Catholic Church has always considered the book to be a historical document, and it is included with the other historical books in the Old Testament of Catholic Bibles.For this reason, there have been various attempts by both scholars and clergy to understand the characters and events in the Book as either an allegorical representation of actual events, or a historical document that had been altered or translated improperly. The practice of changing names has been observed in documents from theSecond Temple period,such as theDamascus Document,which apparently contains references to an uncertain location referred to by the pseudonym of "Damascus". The writings of the Jewish historianFlavius Josephusalso frequently differ from the Biblical record regarding the names of thehigh priests of Israel.Elsewhere in the Bible there are also names of rulers that are unknown to history, such asDarius the Medefrom theBook of Daniel,orAhasuerusfrom theBook of Esther.The large size of the Assyrian army and the large size of Median walls in the book have also been criticized, but both of these have been attested to elsewhere in the Bible and in secular historical records. The Assyrian army that besieged Jerusalem in2 Kings 19was said to have been 185,000 strong, a number several tens of thousands larger than the Assyrian army described in the book of Judith. Also, the Greek historianHerodotusdescribed the walls of Babylon to have been similar in size and extravagance to the walls of Ecbatana in the book of Judith.Herodotus's account was corroborated by similar accounts of the scale of the walls of Babylon by the historiansStrabo,CtesiasandCleitarchus.The identity of the "Nebuchadnezzar" in the book has been debated for thousands of years and various rulers have been proposed by scholars, includingAshurbanipal,Artaxerxes III,Tigranes the Great,Antiochus IV Epiphanes,Cambyses II,XerxesandDarius the Great.

Identification of Nebuchadnezzar with Ashurbanipal

For hundreds of years, the most generally accepted view within the Catholic Church is that the book of Judith occurs during the reign ofAshurbanipal,a notoriously cruel and brutal Assyrian king whose reign was marked by various military campaigns and invasions. Ashurbanipal ruled theNeo-Assyrian Empirefrom Nineveh in 668 to 627 BC. The Challoner Douay-Rheims Bible states that the events of the book begin inA.M.3347, orAnte C.657, which would be during the reign of Ashurbanipal.This would be the twelfth year of Ashurbanipal's reign, which lines up with the book of Judith beginning in the twelfth year of "Nebuchadnezzar". If the rest of the book occurs in the seventeenth and eighteenth years of Ashurbanipal, the years would be 653 and 652 BC, years that correspond to revolts and military campaigns across Ashurbanipal's empire. The traditional Catholic view that the book dates to the reign of Manasseh corresponds to Ashurbanipal's reign, and Ashurbanipal's records name Manasseh as one of a number of vassals who assisted his campaign against Egypt.The profanation of the temple described inJudith4:3 might have been that under kingHezekiah(see2 Chronicles 33:18–19), who reigned between c. 715 and 686 BC. And in that same verse, the return from the dispersion (often assumed to refer to theBabylonian captivity) might refer to the chaos that resulted in people fleeing Jerusalem after Manasseh was taken captive by the Assyrians. The reinforcement of the cities as described inJudith4:5 matches up with the reinforcement that happened in response to the Assyrians under Manasseh.Judith4:6 claims that theHigh Priest of Israelwas in charge of the country at the time. However, it is generally assumed that the book takes place after Manasseh's return from captivity in Assyria and his subsequent repentance. Nicolaus Serarius, Giovanni Menochio and Thomas Worthington speculated that Manasseh was busy fortifying Jerusalem at the time (which also fits with 2 Chronicles 33) and left the matters of the rest of the Israelites to the high priest. Others, such as Houbigant and Haydock, speculate that the events of the book occurred while Manasseh was still captive inBabylon.Whatever the case, it was a typical policy of the time for the Israelites to follow the high priest if the king could not or would not lead.Manasseh is thought by most scholars to have joined a widespread rebellion against Ashurbanipal that was led by his brother,Šamaš-šuma-ukin.Contemporary sources make reference to the many allies ofChaldea(governed by Šamaš-šuma-ukin), including theKingdom of Judah,which were subjects of Assyria and are mentioned in the Book of Judith as victims of Ashurbanipal's Western campaign.TheEncyclopædia Britannicaidentified "Judah" as one of the vassal kingdoms in Šamaš-šuma-ukin's rebel coalition against Ashurbanipal.TheCambridge Ancient Historyalso confirms that "several princes ofPalestine"supported Šamaš-šuma-ukin in the revolt against Ashurbanipal, which seemingly confirms Manasseh's involvement in the revolt.This would explain the reinforcement of the cities described in this book and why the Israelites and other western kingdoms rejected "Nebuchadnezzar's" order for conscription, because many of the vassal rulers of the west supported Šamaš-šuma-ukin.

It is of further interest that Šamaš-šuma-ukin's civil war broke out in 652 BC, the eighteenth year of Ashurbanipal's reign. The book of Judith states that "Nebuchadnezzar" ravaged the western part of the empire in the eighteenth year of his reign. If the events of this book did occur during Ashurbanipal's reign, it is possible that Assyrians did not record it because they were preoccupied with Šamaš-šuma-ukin's revolt, which was not crushed for years to come. Ashurbanipal's successful crushing of Šamaš-šuma-ukin's civil war also prevented the Assyrians from retaking Egypt, which gained independence from Assyria around 655 BC. Numerous theologians, includingAntoine Augustin Calmet,suspect that the ultimate goal of the western campaign was for the Assyrians to sack Egypt, because Holofernes appeared to be heading directly towards Egypt on his campaign through the west. If Calmet and others are correct in suspecting that Holofernes was intending to sack Egypt, this would give further evidence to the theory that the book is set during the reign of Ashurbanipal, who had previously sackedThebesin 663 BC. The view that the book of Judith was written during the reigns of Manasseh and Ashurbanipal was held by a great number of Catholic scholars, including Calmet,George Leo Haydock,Thomas Worthington,Richard Challoner,Giovanni Stefano Menochio,Sixtus of Siena,Robert Bellarmine,Charles François Houbigant,Nicolaus Serarius,Pierre Daniel HuetandBernard de Montfaucon.Many of these theologians are cited and quoted by Calmet in his own commentary on Judith, the "Commentaire littéral sur tous les livres de l'ancien et du nouveau testament". Calmet listed all of "the main objections that can be made against the truth of Judith's Story" and spent the rest of his commentary on the book addressing them, stating: "But all this did not bother Catholic writers. There were a large number of them who answered it expertly, and who undertook to show that there is nothing incompatible in this history, neither with Scripture, nor even with profane (secular) history".There were other Catholic writers who held this view as well, such asFulcran Vigouroux,who went even farther, identifying the battle between "Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians" and "Arphaxad, the king of the Medes" as the battle that occurred between Ashurbanipal andPhraortes.This battle occurred during the seventeenth year of Ashurbanipal's reign, and the book of Judith states that this battle occurred in the seventeenth year of "Nebuchadnezzar's" reign.Jacques-Bénigne Bossuetexpressed a similar view regarding this.The scholars used specific examples from the text that line up with Manasseh's reign. As argued by Vigouroux, the two battles mentioned in the Septuagint version of the Book of Judith are a reference to the clash of the two empires in 658–657 and to Phraortes' death in battle in 653, after which Ashurbanipal continued his military actions with a large campaign starting with theBattle of the Ulai River(653 BC) in the eighteenth year of his reign. The King of the "Elymeans" (Elamites), called "Arioch", is referenced inJudith1:6. If the twelfth year of "Nebuchadnezzar" is to be identified as the twelfth year of Ashurbanipal, this Arioch would be identified asTeumman,who rebelled against Ashurbanipal on many occasions, eventually being killed at the Battle of the Ulai in 653 BC,around the time Catholic theologians place "Nebuchadnezzar's" western campaign.

The identification of "Nebuchadnezzar" with Ashurbanipal was so widespread that it was the only identification in English Catholic Bibles for several hundred years. The 1738 Challoner revision of theDouay Rheims Bibleand theHaydock Biblical Commentaryspecifically declare that "Nabuchodonosor" was "known as 'Saosduchin' to profane historians and succeeded 'Asarhaddan' in the kingdom of the Assyrians". This could only have been Ashurbanipal, as he was the successor of Esarhaddon, his father.It is unclear where the name "Saosduchin" came from, although it is possible that it was derived from theCanon of Kingsby the astronomerClaudius Ptolemy,who wrote in Greek that "Saosdouchinos"followed"Asaradinos"as the king of Assyria. While influential, Ptolemy's record is not perfect, and Ptolemy likely got Ashurbanipal confused with his brother, Šamaš-šuma-ukin, who ruled over Babylon, not Assyria. This would be a plausible explanation for the origin of the Greek name" Saosduchin ".However, while Nebuchadnezzar and Ashurbanipal's campaigns show clear and direct parallels, the main incident of Judith's intervention has not been found in any record aside from this book. An additional difficulty with this theory is that the reasons for the name changes are difficult to understand, unless the text was transmitted without character names before they were by a later copyist or translator, who lived centuries later. Catholic apologistJimmy Akinargues the possibility that the book of Judith is aroman à clef,a historical record with different names for people and places.Ashurbanipal is never referenced by name in the Bible, except perhaps for the corrupt form "Asenappar"in2 ChroniclesandEzra4:10 or the anonymous title "The King of Assyria" in2 Chronicles(33:11), which means his name might have never been recorded by Jewish historians, which could explain the lack of his name in the book of Judith.

Identification of Nebuchadnezzar with Artaxerxes III Ochus

The identity of Nebuchadnezzar was unknown to theChurch Fathers,but some of them attempted an improbable identification withArtaxerxes III Ochus(359–338 BC), not on the basis of the character of the two rulers, but due to the presence of a "Holofernes" and a "Bagoas" in Ochus' army.This view also gained currency with scholarship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.However, due to discrepancies between Artaxerxes's reign and the events in the book of Judith, this theory has largely been abandoned.

Identification of Nebuchadnezzar with Tigranes the Great

Modern scholars argue in favor of a 2nd–1st century context for the Book of Judith, understanding it as a sort of roman à clef, i.e. a literary fiction whose characters stand for some real historical figure, generally contemporary to the author. In the case of the Book of Judith, Biblical scholar Gabriele Boccaccini,identified Nebuchadnezzar withTigranes the Great(140–56 BC), a powerfulKing of Armeniawho, according toJosephusandStrabo,conquered all of the lands identified by the Biblical author in Judith.Under this theory, the story, although fictional, would be set in the time of QueenSalome Alexandra,the only Jewish regnant queen, who reigned over Judea from 76 to 67 BC.

Like Judith, the Queen had to face the menace of a foreign king who had a tendency to destroy the temples of other religions. Both women were widows whose strategical and diplomatic skills helped in the defeat of the invader.Both stories seem to be set at a time when the temple had recently been rededicated, which is the case afterJudas MaccabeekilledNicanorand defeated theSeleucids.The territory of Judean occupation includes the territory ofSamaria,something which was possible in Maccabean times only afterJohn Hyrcanusreconquered those territories. Thus, the presumedSadduceeauthor of Judith would desire to honor the great (Pharisee) Queen who tried to keep both Sadducees andPhariseesunited against the common menace.

Location of Bethulia

Further information:Bethulia

Although there is no historically recorded "Bethulia", the book of Judith gives an extremely precise location for where the city is located, and there are several possible candidates of ancient towns in that area that are now ruins. It has widely been speculated that, based on location descriptions in the book, that the most plausible historical site for Bethulia isShechem.Shechem is a large city in the hill-country of Samaria, on the direct road fromJezreelto Jerusalem, lying in the path of the enemy, at the head of an important pass and is a few hours south ofGeba.TheJewish Encyclopediasubscribes to the theory, suggesting that it was called by a pseudonym because of the historical animosity between the Jews and Samaritans. The Jewish Encyclopedia claims that Shechem is the only location that meets all the requirements for Bethulia's location, further stating: "The identity of Bethulia with Shechem is thus beyond all question".

TheCatholic Encyclopediawrites: "The city was situated on a mountain overlooking the plain ofJezrael,orEsdrelon,and commanding narrow passes to the south (Judith 4:6–7; 6:11–13); at the foot of the mountain there was an important spring, and other springs were in the neighborhood (Judith 6:11; 7:3, 7, 12). Moreover, it lay within investing lines which ran throughDothain,or Dothan, now Tell Dothân, to Belthem, or Belma, no doubt the same as the Belamon ofJudith 8:3,and thence toKyamon, or Chelmon,"which lies over against Esdrelon" (Judith 7:3).These data point to a site on the heights west ofJenin(Engannim), between the plains of Esdrelon and Dothan, where Haraiq el-Mallah, Khirbet Sheikh Shibel and el-Bârid lie close together. Such a site best fulfills all requirements for the location of Bethulia.

TheMadaba Mapmosaic from the 6th century AD, shows a settlement named "Betylion" (Greek Β[ΗΤ]ΥΛΙΟΝ). Many believe this to be Bethulia, but this is unlikely because it is located much farther south. It instead is located on the Egyptian border with the Gaza Strip, in modern-daySheikh Zuweid.

Place names specific to the Book of Judith

Whilst a number of the places referred to are familiarbiblicalor modern place names, there are others which are considered fictional or whose location is not otherwise known. TheologiansAntoine Augustin Calmet,Wilhelm GeseniusandFranz Karl Moversall worked to explain bizarre geographical locations in the book as copyist or translation mistakes. For instance, Movers explained χαλλαίων ( "challaion" ) as referring to χαλδαίων, or "Chaldean".A few more of these disputed locations include:

• 1:5 – the territory of Ragae, possible Rages orRhages,cf.Tobit1:16
• 1:6 – the riversEuphratesandTigrisare mentioned, as well as the Hydaspes (Jadason in theVulgate). Hydaspes is also the Greek name for theJhelum Riverin modernIndiaandPakistan.However, Calmet identified this river as theKarkheh River,called the "Choaspes" by the Greeks. Calmet claims that the copyists confused the Choaspes with the Hydaspes, and claims that the historianQuintus Curtius Rufusmade this exact mistake.
• 2:21 – the plain of Bectileth,three days' march fromNineveh.Calmet identified this as the "Bagadania plain" inCappadociathat was described byStraboas being "at the foot of theTaurus Mountains"
• 4:4 – Kona. Both Calmet and the Bibles of Complute believe that it simply refers to “villages”. Mark 8:27 says that they came to “the villages (κώμας, kômas) ofCaesarea Philippi.”It is possible that among those villages were the Old Testament sites ofBaal-gadandBaal-Hermon.This is also how Johannes Van Der Ploeg translated the passage from the SyriacTrivandrummanuscript.
• 4:4 – Belmain. The SyriacPeshittawrites the name of this location asAbel-meholah(as well as in 7:3), and this identification was further supported by Calmet. Some have speculated that, because the two verses spell the name differently, that it is a different location, possiblyBelameh.
• 4:4 – Choba. Probably theHobahmentioned in Genesis 14:15.
• 4:4 –Aesora.The Septuagint calls itAisora,Arasousia,Aisoraa,orAssaron,depending on the manuscript.PossiblyTel HazororEn-hazor,both of which are mentioned in thebook of Joshua.
• 4:4 – The valley of Salem. It could be identified with "Shalem, a city of Shechem"mentioned in Genesis 33:18. This is the modern city ofSalim,located about three miles east of Shechem, and is located at the foot of theJordan Valley.
• 4:6 and several later references –Bethulia,agated city(Judith 10:6). From the gates of the city, the valley below can be observed (Judith 10:10). Because of the geography described, it is theorized by many, including the Jewish Encyclopedia, to be a pseudonym for Shechem.
• 4:6 – Betomesthaim orBetomasthem.Some translations refer to "the people of Bethulia and Betomesthaim" as a unit, which "faces (singular)Esdraelonopposite the plain near Dothan.TheEncyclopædia Britannicarefers to the "Plain of Esdraelon" as the plain between theGalileehills andSamaria.As such, historian and archaeologistCharles Cutler Torreyidentified Betomesthaim as a pseudonym for the city of Samaria. Torrey went further to identify the Hebrew basis for Betomesthaim as “Bayit Mizpah”, which means “house of outlook”. This is plausible, because "Samaria" is the Greek translation of the Hebrew name "Shomron", which means "watch" or "watchman".
• 4:6 – A plain nearDothan(Dothian in the Vulgate)
• 7:3 - Belbaim. The SyriacPeshittawrites the name of this location asAbel-meholah(as well as in 4:4), and this identification was further supported by Calmet.
• 7:3 – Cyalon or Cynamon,also facing Esdraelon. TheEncyclopedia of the Biblenotes that "some scholars have felt that this name is a corruption forJokneam".
• 7:18 – Egrebeh, which is near Chubi, beside the Wadi Mochmur. Both Calmet andCharles William Meredith van de Veldeidentified Egrebeh with Akrabeh, a ruined site in the mountains of Central Palestine, eleven miles southeast of Shechem. Chubi has been identified with Quzah, a village located nearEinabus,five and-a-half miles south of Shechem and five miles west of Agrabeh. The Wady Makfuriyeh is located on the northern slopes of which Akrabeh stands. The Wadi Mochmur as the Wady Makfuriyeh. This identification is supported by the Syriac, which translated the name of the river as "Nachol de-Peor".
• 8:4 – Balamon. The Septuagint states that Manasseh, Judith's husband, was buried in a field between Dothan and Balamon. This detail is not included in theVulgate.Calmet speculated that "Balamon" was "the same city that they have already named several times, sometimes Belmaïm, and sometimes Belma, or Bélem, or Baalmeon". It is possible that "Balamon" is a different location that is to be identified withBaal-meon.
• 15:4 – Along with Betomesthaim, other places presumably in the vicinity of Bethulia are mentioned: Choba and Kola. Choba could be identified with Hobah and Kola could be identified withKeilah,or possiblyCabul.In this verse, theCodex Alexandrinusalso lists a place called Bebai, however this is not included in theCodex Vaticanus.Bebai could be identified withAbel-Maim,an identification supported by the Syriac Trivandrum manuscript.

Later artistic renditions

The character of Judith is larger than life, and she has won a place in Jewish and Christian lore, art, poetry and drama. The etymology of her name meaning "woman ofJudea",suggests that she represents the heroic spirit of theJewish people,and that same spirit, as well as herchastity,have endeared her toChristianity.

Owing to her unwavering religious devotion, she is able to step outside of her widow's role, and dress and act in a sexually provocative manner while clearly remaining true to her ideals in the reader's mind, and her seduction and beheading of the wicked Holofernes while playing this role has been rich fodder for artists of various genres.

In literature

The first extant commentary on The Book of Judith is byHrabanus Maurus(9th century). Thenceforth her presence inMedievalliterature is robust: in homilies, biblical paraphrases, histories and poetry. AnOld English poetic versionis found together withBeowulf(their epics appear both in theNowell Codex). "The opening of the poem is lost (scholars estimate that 100 lines were lost) but the remainder of the poem, as can be seen, the poet reshaped the biblical source and set the poem's narrative to an Anglo–Saxon audience."

At the same time she is thesubject of a homilyby theAnglo-SaxonabbotÆlfric.The two conceptual poles represented by these works will inform much of Judith's subsequent history.

In the epic, she is the brave warrior, forceful and active; in the homily she is an exemplar of pious chastity for cloistered nuns. In both cases, her narrative gained relevance from theNorseVikinginvasions of the period. Within the next three centuries Judith would be treated by such major figures asHeinrich Frauenlob,Dante,andGeoffrey Chaucer.

In medieval Christian art, the predominance of church patronage assured that Judith's patristic valences as "Mulier Sancta" and Virgin Mary prototype would prevail: from the 8th-century frescoes in Santa Maria Antigua in Rome through innumerable later bible miniatures. Gothic cathedrals often featured Judith, most impressively in the series of 40 stained glass panels at theSainte-Chapellein Paris (1240s).

InRenaissanceliterature and visual arts, all of these trends were continued, often in updated forms, and developed. The already well established notion of Judith as anexemplumof the courage of local people against tyrannical rule from afar was given new urgency by the Assyrian nationality of Holofernes, which made him an inevitable symbol of the threateningOttoman Turks.TheItalian RenaissancepoetLucrezia Tornabuonichose Judith as one of the five subjects of her poetry on biblical figures.

A similar dynamic was created in the 16th century by the confessional strife of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Both Protestants and Catholics draped themselves in the protective mantle of Judith and cast their "heretical" enemies as Holofernes.

In 16th-century France, writers such asGuillaume Du Bartas,Gabrielle de CoignardandAnne de Marquetscomposed poems on Judith's triumph over Holofernes. Croatian poet and humanistMarko Marulićalso wrote an epic on Judith's story in 1501, theJudita.Italian poet and scholarBartolomeo Tortolettiwrote a Latin epic on the Biblical character of Judith (Bartholomaei Tortoletti Iuditha uindex e uindicata,1628). The Catholic tractA Treatise of Schisme,written in 1578 at Douai by the English Roman Catholic scholarGregory Martin,included a paragraph in which Martin expressed confidence that "the Catholic Hope would triumph, and pious Judith would slay Holofernes". This was interpreted by the English Protestant authorities at the time as incitement to slayQueen Elizabeth I.It served as the grounds for the death sentence passed on printerWilliam Carterwho had printed Martin's tract and who was executed in 1584.

In painting and sculpture

Main article:Judith beheading Holofernes

Judith Slaying Holofernes byArtemisia Gentileschi

The subject is one of the most commonly shown in thePower of Womentopos.The account of Judith's beheading of Holofernes has been treated by several painters and sculptors, most notablyDonatelloandCaravaggio,as well asSandro Botticelli,Andrea Mantegna,Giorgione,Lucas Cranach the Elder,Titian,Horace Vernet,Gustav Klimt,Artemisia Gentileschi,Jan Sanders van Hemessen,Trophime Bigot,Francisco Goya,Francesco CairoandHermann-Paul.Also, Michelangelo depicts the scene in multiple aspects in one of the Pendentives, or four spandrels on the ceiling of theSistine Chapel.Judy Chicagoincluded Judith with a place setting inThe Dinner Party.

Klimt's explicit 1901 version ofJudith and the Head of Holoferneswas shocking to viewers and is said to have targeted themes of female sexuality that had previously been more or less taboo.

In music and theatre

The famous 40-voice motetSpem in alium,by English composerThomas Tallis,is a setting of a text from the Book of Judith. The story also inspiredoratoriosbyAntonio Vivaldi,W. A. MozartandHubert Parry,and anoperettabyJacob Pavlovitch Adler.Marc-Antoine Charpentierhas composedJudith sive Bethulia liberataH.391, oratorio for soloists, chorus, 2 flutes, strings, and continuo (? mid-1670s).Elisabeth Jacquet de La Guerre(EJG.30) andSébastien de Brossardhave composed a cantate Judith.

Alessandro Scarlattiwrote an oratorio in 1693,La Giuditta,as did the Portuguese composerFrancisco António de Almeidain 1726;Juditha triumphanswas written in 1716 byAntonio Vivaldi;Mozartcomposed in 1771La Betulia Liberata(KV 118), to a libretto byPietro Metastasio.Arthur Honeggercomposed an oratorio,Judith,in 1925 to a libretto byRené Morax.Operatic treatments exist by Russian composerAlexander Serov,Judith,by Austrian composerEmil von Reznicek,Holofernes,andJudithby German composer Siegfried Matthus. The French composer Jean Guillou wrote his Judith-Symphonie for Mezzo and Orchestra in 1970, premiered in Paris in 1972 and published by Schott-Music.

In 1840,Friedrich Hebbel's playJudithwas performed in Berlin. He deliberately departs from the biblical text:

I have no use for the biblical Judith. There, Judith is a widow who lures Holofernes into her web with wiles, when she has his head in her bag she sings and jubilates with all of Israel for three months. That is mean, such a nature is not worthy of her success [...]. My Judith is paralyzed by her deed, frozen by the thought that she might give birth to Holofernes' son; she knows that she has passed her boundaries, that she has, at the very least, done the right thing for the wrong reasons.

The story of Judith has been a favourite of latter-day playwrights; it was brought alive in 1892 byAbraham Goldfaden,who worked in Eastern Europe. The American playwrightThomas Bailey Aldrich'sJudith of Bethuliawas first performed in New York, 1905, and was the basis for the 1914 productionJudith of Bethuliaby directorD. W. Griffith.A full hour in length, it was one of the earliest feature films made in the United States. English writerArnold Bennettin 1919 tried his hand at dramaturgy withJudith,a faithful reproduction in three acts; it premiered in spring 1919 at Devonshire Park Theatre, Eastbourne.In 1981, the play "Judith among the Lepers" by the Israeli (Hebrew) playwrightMoshe Shamirwas performed in Israel. Shamir examines the question why the story of Judith was excluded from the Jewish (Hebrew) Bible and thus banned from Jewish history. In putting her story on stage he tries to reintegrate Judith's story into Jewish history. English playwrightHoward Barkerexamined the Judith story and its aftermath, first in the scene "The Unforeseen Consequences of a Patriotic Act", as part of his collection of vignettes,The Possibilities.Barker later expanded the scene into a short playJudith.

Further reading

• Cheyne, Thomas Kelly; Black, John Sutherland, eds. (1901)."Esora".Encyclopaedia Biblica.Vol. II E to K. New York: Macmillan.
• Friedrich Justus Knecht (1910)."The Heroic Judith".A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture.B. Herder.
• Pope, Hugh(1910)."Book of Judith".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

External links

• The Book of JudithFull text (also available inArabic)
• Craven, ToniJudith: Apocrypha,The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women31 December 1999 atJewish Women's Archive
• Toy, Crawford Howell;Torrey, Charles C.JUDITH, BOOK OFatThe Jewish Encyclopedia,1906
• O'Loughlin, Tom;Malcom, Matthew; Talbert, Andrew; Watts, Peter (2010)."Judith".Bibledex - A video about every book in the Bible.Brady Haranfor theUniversity of Nottingham.
• Book of Judithpublic domain audiobook atLibriVox