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Köppen climate classification

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TheKöppen climate classificationis one of the most widely usedclimate classificationsystems. It was first published by German-RussianclimatologistWladimir Köppen(1846–1940) in 1884,[1][2]with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.[3][4]Later, German climatologistRudolf Geiger(1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called theKöppen–Geiger climate classification.[5][6]

The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups areA(tropical),B(arid),C(temperate),D(continental), andE(polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in theEgroup are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example,Afindicates atropical rainforest climate.The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in theAgroup, indicated by the third letter for climates inB,C,D,and the second letter for climates inE.For example,Cfbindicates anoceanic climatewith warm summers as indicated by the endingb.Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.[7]

As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist, his main climate groups are based on the types of vegetation occurring in a given climate classification region. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.[8]

The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within theTrewartha climate classificationsystem in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refinedmiddle latitudeclimate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).[9]: 200–1 

Köppen–Geiger climate map 1991–2020[8]
Af
Am
Aw
As
BWh
BWk
BSh
BSk
Csa
Csb
Csc
Cwa
Cwb
Cwc
Cfa
Cfb
Cfc
Dsa
Dsb
Dsc
Dsd
Dwa
Dwb
Dwc
Dwd
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
Dfd
ET
EF

Overview[edit]

Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table[8][7][10]
1st 2nd 3rd
A (Tropical)
  • f (Rainforest)
  • m (Monsoon)
  • w (Savanna, dry winter)
  • s (Savanna, dry summer)
B (Dry)
  • W (Arid Desert)
  • S (Semi-Arid Steppe)
  • h (Hot)
  • k (Cold)
C (Temperate)
  • w (Dry winter)
  • f (No dry season)
  • s (Dry summer)
  • a (Hot summer)
  • b (Warm summer)
  • c (Cold summer)
D (Continental)
  • w (Dry winter)
  • f (No dry season)
  • s (Dry summer)
  • a (Hot summer)
  • b (Warm summer)
  • c (Cold summer)
  • d (Very cold winter)
E (Polar)
  • T (Tundra)
  • F (Ice cap)

The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups:A(tropical),B(arid),C(temperate),D(continental), andE(polar).[11]The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.[12]Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September and/or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.[8][10]

Group A: Tropical climates[edit]

Tropical climateshave an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher every month of the year, with significantprecipitation.[8][10]

  • Af=Tropical rainforest climate;average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month.
  • Am=Tropical monsoon climate;driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least.[8][10]
  • AworAs= Tropical wet and dry orsavannaclimate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than.[8][10]

Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates[edit]

Desertandsemi-aridclimates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F).

The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature inCelsiusby 20, then adding:

  1. 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or
  2. 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or
  3. 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid:steppe climate).[8][10]

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.[13][14][15]

Group C: Temperate climates[edit]

Temperate climateshave the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)[10](or −3 °C (27 °F))[7]and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][7]For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.[10]This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.[10]

  • Cfa=Humid subtropical climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Cfb= Temperateoceanic climateorsubtropical highland climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Cfc=Subpolar oceanic climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Cwa=Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Cwb=Subtropical highland climateor Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Cwc= Coldsubtropical highland climateor Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Csa=Hot-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]
  • Csb=Warm-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]
  • Csc=Cold-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]

Group D: Continental climates[edit]

Continental climateshave at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][7]

  • Dfa= Hot-summerhumid continental climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfb= Warm-summerhumid continental climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfc=Subarctic climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dfd= Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
  • Dwa= Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Dwb= Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Dwc= Monsoon-influencedsubarctic climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Dwd= Monsoon-influenced extremely coldsubarctic climate;coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
  • Dsa=Mediterranean-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsb= Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsc= Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
  • Dsd= Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).

Group E: Polar and alpine climates[edit]

Polarandalpine climateshas every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).[8][10]

  • ET=Tundra climate;average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).[8][10]
  • EF=Ice cap climate;eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[8][10]

Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates[edit]

Tropical climate distribution

Tropical climatesare characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:

Af:Tropical rainforest climate[edit]

Main article:Tropical rainforest climate

All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of theequator.This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.[9]When it is dominated most of the year by thedoldrumslow-pressure system due to the presence of theIntertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the trade winds dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.[16]

Examples

Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwestPacificcoast ofSouthandCentral America,fromEcuadortoCosta Rica;see, for instance,Andagoya,Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as atPalembang,Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as atSitiawan,Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).

(Note.The termaseasonalrefers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g.,phenology), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is calledinvierno(Spanish) orinverno(Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is calledveranoorverão,and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).

Am:Tropical monsoon climate[edit]

Main article:Tropical monsoon climate

This type of climate results from themonsoonwinds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at leastof average monthly precipitation.[9]: 208 

Examples

Aw/As:Tropical savanna climate[edit]

Main article:Tropical savanna climate

Aw:Tropical savanna climate with dry winters[edit]

Awclimates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less thanof average monthly precipitation.[9]: 208–211 

Examples

Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of thetropicalzone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g.,San Marcos, Antioquia,Colombia) also qualifies. TheCaribbeancoast, eastward from theGulf of Urabáon theColombia–Panamáborder to theOrinoco Riverdelta, on theAtlantic Ocean(about 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme is theBShclimate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in theGuajira,andCoro,westernVenezuela,the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300 mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).

This condition extends to theLesser AntillesandGreater Antillesforming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of theequatorialline—the climate isAf.East from theAndes,between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River'sLlanosorsavannas,from where this climate takes its name.

As:Tropical savanna climate with dry-summers[edit]

SometimesAsis used in place ofAwif the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).[7][25]This is the case in parts ofHawaii,northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days generally because ofrain shadoweffects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.

Examples

Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates[edit]

Main articles:Desert climateandSemi-arid climate
Arid climatedistribution

These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates thepotential evapotranspiration.[9]: 212 The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:

Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add

  1. 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or
  2. 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or
  3. 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.

According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.[26]

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification isBW(arid:desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification isBS(semi-arid:steppe climate).

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here,hsignifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) whileksignified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C).

Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized byfrequent fogand low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeledBWnwith the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.[13][14][15]An equivalentBSncategory can be found in foggy coastal steppes.[27]

BW:Arid climates[edit]

Main article:Desert climate

BWh:Hot deserts[edit]

BWk:Cold deserts[edit]

BS:Semi-arid (steppe) climates[edit]

Main article:Semi-arid climate

BSh:Hot semi-arid[edit]

BSk:Cold semi-arid[edit]

Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates[edit]

Main article:Temperate climate
Temperate climatedistribution

In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.

The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—windicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation).sindicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer.fmeans significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).[8]

The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—aindicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) whilebindicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), andcindicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F).[8][10][7]

Cs:Mediterranean-type climates[edit]

Main article:Mediterranean climate

Csa:Hot-summer Mediterranean climates[edit]

These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.[46]These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bringfogbut prevent rain.[9]: 221–223 

Examples

Csb:Warm-summer Mediterranean climates[edit]

Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F). These climates are classified asCsb.[8]

Examples

Csc:Cold-summer Mediterranean climates[edit]

Cold summer Mediterranean climates (Csc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastalCsbclimate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.[9]Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

Examples

Cfa:Humid subtropical climates[edit]

Main article:Humid subtropical climate

These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.

The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.[9]: 223–226 

Examples

Cfb:Oceanic climates[edit]

Marine west coast climate[edit]

Cfbclimates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 40° and 60°; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.

These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet.Cfbclimates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".[9]: 226–229 

Examples

Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall[edit]

Main article:Oceanic climate § Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)

Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (Cfb) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands ofAustralia,such as in or around theGreat Dividing Rangein the north of the state ofNew South Wales,and also sparsely in other continents, such as inSouth America,among others. Unlike a typicalCwbclimate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both theCfbandCfaclimates, but unlike these climates, they have a highdiurnal temperature variationand low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively highelevation.

Examples

Cfc:Subpolar oceanic climate[edit]

Subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, most often at latitudes from 60° north and south to 70° north and south.[9]

Examples

Cw:Dry-winter subtropical climates[edit]

Cwa:Dry-winter humid subtropical climate[edit]

Main entry:Subtropical monsoon climate

Cwais a monsoonal influenced version of thehumid subtropical climate,having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as theCfaclimates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in theSouthern Coneof South America, theGangetic Plainof South Asia, southeastern Africa, and parts of East Asia and Mexico.

Examples

Cwb:Dry-winter subtropical highland climate[edit]

Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (Cwb) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics ofCentral America,South America,Africa,andSouthandSoutheast Asiaor areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.

Examples

Cwc:Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate[edit]

Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (Cwc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent toCwbclimates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.

  • El Alto,Bolivia (Cwc,bordering onET)
  • Juliaca,Peru (Cwc,bordering onET)
  • La Paz,Bolivia (Cwc,bordering onET)
  • Mount Pulag,Philippines (Cwc,bordering onETandCwb)
  • Potosí,Bolivia (Cwc,bordering onET)

Group D: Continental/microthermal climates[edit]

Main article:Continental climate
Continental climatedistribution
The snowy city ofSapporo

These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (or −3 °C (27 °F), as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.

Dfa/Dwa/Dsa:Hot summer humid continental climates[edit]

Main article:Hot-summer humid continental climate

Dfaclimates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 °C (72 °F). In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America.Dsaexists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.[9]: 231–32 

These climates exist only in the northern hemisphere because the southern hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.

Examples

In eastern Asia,Dwaclimates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because ofmonsooncirculation.

Examples

Dsaexists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.

Examples

Dfb/Dwb/Dsb:Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates[edit]

Main article:Warm-summer humid continental climate

Dfbclimates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes in central and eastern Europe and Russia, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates, where it extends up to 65 degrees latitude in places.[9]

Examples

Like with all Group D climates,Dwbclimates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.

Examples

Dsbarises from the same scenario asDsa,but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.

Examples

Dfc/Dwc/Dsc:Subarctic/boreal climates[edit]

Main article:Subarctic climate

Dfc,DscandDwcclimates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.[9]: 232–235 

Examples:

Dfd/Dwd/Dsd:Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters[edit]

Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C. These climates occur only in easternSiberia.The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.[77]

Examples

Group E: Polar climates[edit]

Polar climatedistribution

In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:

ET:Tundra climate[edit]

Tundra climate(ET): warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and 10 °C. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands.ETclimates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.

Examples

EF:Ice cap climate[edit]

Ice cap climate(EF): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner Greenland, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).

Examples

Ecological significance[edit]

Biomass[edit]

The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.[82]

Climate change[edit]

Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.[12]The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.[83]

In 2015, aNanjing Universitypaper published inScientific Reportsanalyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".[84]

A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.[85]

Other Köppen climate maps[edit]

All maps use the ≥0 °C definition for the temperate-continental border.[8]

  • North America
    North America
  • Europe
    Europe
  • Russia
    Russia
  • Central Asia
    Central Asia
  • East Asia
    East Asia
  • South America
    South America
  • Africa
    Africa
  • Western Asia
    Western Asia
  • South Asia
    South Asia
  • Southeast Asia
    Southeast Asia
  • Melanesia/Oceania
    Melanesia/Oceania
  • Australia
    Australia
  • New Zealand
    New Zealand
  • World (Present)
    World (Present)
  • World (Future)
    World (Future)

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toKöppen-Geiger.

Climate records[edit]

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