Köppen climate classification
TheKöppen climate classificationis one of the most widely usedclimate classificationsystems. It was first published by German-RussianclimatologistWladimir Köppen(1846–1940) in 1884,[1][2]with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.[3][4]Later, German climatologistRudolf Geiger(1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called theKöppen–Geiger climate classification.[5][6]
The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups areA(tropical),B(arid),C(temperate),D(continental), andE(polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in theEgroup are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example,Afindicates atropical rainforest climate.The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in theAgroup, indicated by the third letter for climates inB,C,D,and the second letter for climates inE.For example,Cfbindicates anoceanic climatewith warm summers as indicated by the endingb.Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.[7]
As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as abotanist,his main climate groups are based on the types of vegetation occurring in a given climate classification region. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.[8]
The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within theTrewartha climate classificationsystem in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refinedmiddle latitudeclimate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).[9]: 200–1
Overview
1st | 2nd | 3rd |
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A (Tropical) |
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B (Dry) |
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C (Temperate) |
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D (Continental) |
|
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E (Polar) |
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The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups:A(tropical),B(arid),C(temperate),D(continental), andE(polar).[11]The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.[12]Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September and/or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.[8][10]
Group A: Tropical climates
Tropical climateshave an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher every month of the year, with significantprecipitation.[8][10]
- Af=Tropical rainforest climate;average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month.
- Am=Tropical monsoon climate;driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least.[8][10]
- AworAs= Tropical wet and dry orsavannaclimate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than.[8][10]
Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates
Desertandsemi-aridclimates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F).
The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature inCelsiusby 20, then adding:
- 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or
- 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or
- 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.
If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid:steppe climate).[8][10]
A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.[13][14][15]
Group C: Temperate climates
Temperate climateshave the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)[10](or −3 °C (26.6 °F))[7]and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][7]For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.[10]This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.[10]
- Cfa=Humid subtropical climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Cfb= Temperateoceanic climateorsubtropical highland climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Cfc=Subpolar oceanic climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Cwa=Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Cwb=Subtropical highland climateor Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Cwc= Coldsubtropical highland climateor Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Csa=Hot-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]
- Csb=Warm-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]
- Csc=Cold-summer Mediterranean climate;coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).[8]
Group D: Continental climates
Continental climateshave at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).[10][7]
- Dfa= Hot-summerhumid continental climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Dfb= Warm-summerhumid continental climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Dfc=Subarctic climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Dfd= Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
- Dwa= Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Dwb= Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Dwc= Monsoon-influencedsubarctic climate;coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Dwd= Monsoon-influenced extremely coldsubarctic climate;coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
- Dsa=Mediterranean-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
- Dsb= Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
- Dsc= Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
- Dsd= Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).
Group E: Polar and alpine climates
Polarandalpine climateshas every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).[8][10]
- ET=Tundra climate;average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).[8][10]
- EF=Ice cap climate;eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[8][10]
Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates
Tropical climatesare characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:
Af:Tropical rainforest climate
All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of theequator.This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.[9]When it is dominated most of the year by thedoldrumslow-pressure system due to the presence of theIntertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the trade winds dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.[16]
Examples
- Alofi,Niue,New Zealand(Af)
- Antalaha,Madagascar(Af)
- Apia,Samoa(Af)
- Atuona,Hiva Oa,French Polynesia(Af)
- Avarua,Cook Islands(Af)
- Bluefields,Nicaragua(Af)
- Buenaventura,Colombia(Af)
- Castries,Saint Lucia(Af,bordering onAm)
- Changuinola,Panama(Af)
- Cocos Island,Costa Rica(Af)
- Colombo,Sri Lanka(Af)
- Davao,Philippines(Af)
- Easter Island,Chile(Af)
- Fort Lauderdale,Florida,United States(Af,bordering onAm)
- Funafuti,Tuvalu(Af)
- Georgetown,Guyana(Af)
- Hagåtña,Guam(Af)
- Hamilton,Bermuda(Af,bordering onCfa)
- Higüey,Dominican Republic(Af,bordering onAm)
- Hilo,Hawaii,United States(Af)
- Honiara,Solomon Islands(Af)
- Innisfail,Queensland,Australia(Af)
- Ipoh,Indonesia(Af)
- Iquitos,Peru(Af)
- Ishigaki,Japan(Af)
- Johor Bahru,Malaysia(Af)
- Kampala,Uganda(Af)
- Kisumu,Kenya(Af)
- Koror,Palau(Af)
- Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia(Af)
- Kuching,Malaysia(Af)
- Kurunegala,Sri Lanka(Af,bordering onAm)
- La Ceiba,Honduras(Af)
- Lae,Papua New Guinea(Af)
- Majuro,Marshall Islands(Af)
- Manaus,Brazil(Af)
- Mata Utu,Wallis and Futuna,French Polynesia(Af)
- Medan,Indonesia(Af)
- Moroni,Comoros(Af)
- Nakhon Si Thammarat,Thailand(Af)
- Narathiwat,Thailand(Af,bordering onAm)
- Nuku'alofa,Tonga(Af)
- Orchid Island,Taiwan(Af)
- Padang,Indonesia(Af)
- Pago Pago,American Samoa(Af)
- Palikir,Micronesia(Af)
- Paramaribo,Suriname(Af)
- Papeete,Tahiti,French Polynesia(Af)
- Pitcairn Island,United Kingdom(Af)
- Pointe-à-Pitre,Guadeloupe(Af,bordering onAm)
- Polomolok,Philippines(Af)
- Port Antonio,Jamaica(Af)
- Port Vila,Vanuatu(Af)
- Puerto Barrios,Guatemala(Af)
- Punta Gorda,Belize(Af)
- Puyo,Ecuador(Af)
- Quibdó,Colombia(Af)
- Ratnapura,Sri Lanka(Af)
- Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni,French Guiana(Af)
- Salvador da Bahia,Brazil(Af)
- Santos,Brazil(Af)
- Singapore(Af)
- Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte,Sri Lanka(Af,bordering onAm)
- St. George's,Grenada(Am)
- Suva,Fiji(Af)
- Tabubil,Papua New Guinea(Af)
- Tacloban,Philippines(Af)
- Tarawa,Kiribati(Af)
- Toamasina,Madagascar(Af)
- Tubuai,Austral Islands,France(Af)
- Victoria,Seychelles(Af)
- Villa Tunari,Bolivia(Af)
- West Palm Beach,Florida,United States(Af,bordering onAm)
- Yaren,Nauru(Af)
Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwestPacificcoast ofSouthandCentral America,fromEcuadortoCosta Rica;see, for instance,Andagoya,Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as atPalembang,Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as atSitiawan,Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).
(Note.The termaseasonalrefers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g.,phenology), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is calledinvierno(Spanish) orinverno(Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is calledveranoorverão,and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).
Am:Tropical monsoon climate
This type of climate results from themonsoonwinds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at leastof average monthly precipitation.[9]: 208
Examples
- Alor Setar,Malaysia(Am)
- Aracaju,Brazil(Am)
- Baguio,Philippines(Am,bordering onCwb)
- Bandung,Indonesia(Am,bordering onAf)
- Barrancabermeja,Colombia(Am)
- Basseterre,Saint Kitts and Nevis(Am)
- Bata,Equatorial Guinea(Am)
- Batticaloa,Sri Lanka(Am,bordering onAs)
- Belmopan,Belize(Am)
- Cà Mau,Vietnam(Am)
- Cali,Colombia(Am)
- Cairns,Queensland,Australia(Am)[17]
- Cayenne,French Guiana(Am,bordering onAf)
- Chichijima,Japan(Am,bordering onAwandCfa)
- Chittagong,Bangladesh(Am)
- Christmas Island,Australia(Am)
- Coatzacoalcos,Veracruz,Mexico(Am)
- Conakry,Guinea(Am)
- Curepipe,Mauritius(Am)
- Da Nang,Vietnam(Am)
- Douala,Cameroon(Am)
- Freetown,Sierra Leone(Am)
- Guanare,Venezuela(Am)
- Hat Yai,Thailand(Am,bordering onAw)
- Huế,Thừa Thiên–Huế,Vietnam(Am)
- Jakarta,Indonesia(Am)
- Kochi,Kerala,India(Am)
- Ko Samui,Thailand(Am,bordering onAf)
- Langkawi,Malaysia(Am)
- Libreville,Gabon(Am)
- Maceió,Brazil(Am)
- Makassar,Indonesia(Am)
- Managua,Nicaragua(Am)
- Malabo,Equatorial Guinea(Am)
- Malé,Maldives(Am)
- Mangalore,Karnataka,India(Am)
- Manila,Philippines(Am)
- Mérida,Venezuela(Am)
- Miami,Florida,United States(Am)
- Monrovia,Liberia(Am)
- Nassau,The Bahamas(Am,bordering onAw)
- Panamá City,Panamá(Am)
- Pattani,Thailand(Am)
- Phuntsholing,Bhutan(Am,bordering onCwa)[18]
- Pingtung,Taiwan(Am)
- Port Harcourt,Rivers State,Nigeria(Am)
- Port of Spain,Trinidad and Tobago(Am)
- Pucallpa,Peru(Am)
- Puerto Ayacucho,Venezuela(Am)
- Puerto Maldonado,Peru(Am)[19]
- Qionghai City,China(Am)[20]
- Quezon City,Philippines(Am)
- Recife,Pernambuco,Brazil(Am)
- Roseau,Dominica(Am)
- Saipan,Northern Mariana Islands,United States(Am,bordering onAf)
- San Juan,Puerto Rico(Am)
- Santo Domingo,Dominican Republic(Am)
- Sihanoukville,Cambodia(Am)
- Sylhet,Bangladesh(Am,bordering onCwa)
- Taitung,Taiwan(Am)
- Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala,India(Am)
- Villahermosa,Mexico(Am)
- Wanning,China(Am)
- Wenchang City,China(Am)[20]
- Yangon,Myanmar(Am)
- Zanzibar City,Tanzania(Am)
Aw/As:Tropical savanna climate
Aw:Tropical savanna climate with dry winters
Awclimates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less thanof average monthly precipitation.[9]: 208–211
Examples
- Abidjan,Ivory Coast(Aw)
- Abuja,Nigeria(Aw)
- Bamako,Mali(Aw)
- Bangalore,Karnataka,India(Aw)
- Bangkok,Thailand(Aw)
- Bangui,Central African Republic(Aw)
- Banjul,The Gambia(Aw)
- Barranquilla,Colombia(Aw)
- Belo Horizonte,Brazil(Aw)
- Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India(Aw)
- Bissau,Guinea-Bissau(Aw)
- Brasília,Brazil(Aw)
- Brazzaville,Republic of the Congo(Aw)
- Bridgetown,Barbados(Aw)
- Bujumbura,Burundi(Aw)
- Cancún,Quintana Roo,Mexico(Aw,bordering onAm)
- Caracas,Venezuela(Aw)
- Cartagena,Colombia,(Aw)
- Cotonou,Benin(Aw)
- Cuernavaca,Mexico(Aw,bordering onCwa)[21]
- Dar es Salaam,Tanzania(Aw)
- Darwin,Northern Territory,Australia(Aw)
- Dhaka,Bangladesh(Aw)
- Dili,East Timor(Aw)
- Dongfang,Hainan,China(Aw)
- Guatemala City,Guatemala(Aw,bordering onCwa)
- Guayaquil,Ecuador(Aw)
- Haikou,Hainan,China(Aw,bordering onCwa)[22]
- Havana,Cuba(Aw,bordering onAf)
- Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam(Aw)
- Hyderabad,Telangana,India(Aw,bordering onBSh)
- Juba,South Sudan(Aw)
- Kano,Nigeria(Aw)
- Kaohsiung,Taiwan(Aw)
- Key West,Florida,United States(Aw)
- Khulna,Bangladesh(Aw)
- Kigali,Rwanda(Aw)
- Kingston,Jamaica(Aw,bordering onBSh)
- Kinshasa,Democratic Republic of Congo(Aw)
- Kolkata,West Bengal,India(Aw)
- Kumasi,Ghana(Aw)
- Kupang,Indonesia(Aw)
- Lagos,Nigeria(Aw)
- Lomé,Togo(Aw)
- Mandalay,Myanmar(Aw,bordering onBSh)
- Maputo,Mozambique(Aw,bordering onBSh)
- Mengla,Yunnan,China(Aw)[22]
- Minamitorishima,Japan(Aw)
- Mumbai,Maharashtra,India(Aw,bordering onAm)
- Naples,Florida,United States(Aw)
- Phnom Penh,Cambodia(Aw)
- Port-au-Prince,Haiti(Aw)
- Port Louis,Mauritius(Aw)
- Port Moresby,Papua New Guinea(Aw)
- Port of Spain,Trinidad and Tobago(Aw)
- Rio de Janeiro,Brazil(Aw,bordering onAm)
- San Cristóbal Island,Ecuador(Aw)
- San José,Costa Rica(Aw)
- San Pedro Sula,Honduras(Aw,bordering onAm)
- San Salvador,El Salvador(Aw)
- Santa Cruz de la Sierra,Bolivia(Aw,bordering onAf)
- Santiago de Cuba,Cuba(Aw)
- Sanya,Hainan,China(Aw)
- St. John's,Antigua and Barbuda(Aw)
- Surabaya,Indonesia(Aw)
- Tangail,Bangladesh(Aw)
- Tegucigalpa,Honduras(Aw)
- Townsville,Queensland,Australia(Aw)
- Veracruz, Veracruz,Mexico(Aw)
- Vientiane,Laos(Aw)
- Wake Island,United States(Aw)
- Yaoundé,Cameroon(Aw)
- Ziguinchor,Senegal(Aw)[23]
Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of thetropicalzone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g.,San Marcos, Antioquia,Colombia) also qualifies. TheCaribbeancoast, eastward from theGulf of Urabáon theColombia–Panamáborder to theOrinoco Riverdelta, on theAtlantic Ocean(about 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme is theBWhclimate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in theGuajira,andCoro,westernVenezuela,the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300 mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).
This condition extends to theLesser AntillesandGreater Antillesforming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of theequatorialline—the climate isAf.East from theAndes,between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River'sLlanosorsavannas,from where this climate takes its name.
As:Tropical savanna climate with dry-summers
SometimesAsis used in place ofAwif the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).[7][24]This is the case in parts ofHawaii,northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days generally because ofrain shadoweffects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.
Examples
- Cape Coast,Ghana(bothAw/As)
- Chennai,Tamil Nadu,India(As)
- Fortaleza,Brazil(As)
- Jaffna,Sri Lanka(As)
- Kapalua,Hawaii,United States(As)
- Lanai City,Hawaii,United States(As)
- Mombasa,Kenya(As)
- Natal, Rio Grande do Norte,Brazil(As)
- Nha Trang,Vietnam(As)
- Nouméa,New Caledonia(As)
- São Tomé,São Tomé and Principe(As)
- Trincomalee,Sri Lanka(As)
Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates
These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates thepotential evapotranspiration.[9]: 212 The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:
Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add
- 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or
- 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or
- 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.
According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.[25]
If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification isBW(arid:desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification isBS(semi-arid:steppe climate).
A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here,hsignifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) whileksignified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C).
Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized byfrequent fogand low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeledBWnwith the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.[13][14][15]An equivalentBSncategory can be found in foggy coastal steppes.[26]
BW:Arid climates
BWh:Hot deserts
- ʽAziziya,Jafara,Libya(BWh)
- Ahvaz,Khuzestan,Iran(BWh)
- Alice Springs,Australia(BWh)
- Almería,Andalusia,Spain(BWh,bordering onBSh)
- Arica,Chile(BWh)
- Ascension Island,United Kingdom(BWh)
- Baghdad,Iraq(BWh)
- Biskra,Algeria(BWh)[27]
- Cairo,Egypt(BWh)
- Coober Pedy,Australia(BWh)
- Dallol,Ethiopia(BWh), location of the hottest average annual temperature on Earth
- Death Valley,California,United States(BWh), location of the hottest air temperature ever reliably recorded on Earth
- Djibouti City,Djibouti(BWh)
- Doha,Qatar(BWh)
- Dubai,United Arab Emirates(BWh)
- Eilat,Southern District,Israel(BWh)
- Fuerteventura,Canary Islands,Spain(BWh)[28]
- Hermosillo,Sonora,Mexico(BWh,bordering onBSh)
- Iquique,Chile(BWh,bordering onBWk)
- Jalalabad,Nangarhar,Afghanistan(BWh)
- Jamestown,Saint Helena,United Kingdom(BWh)
- Jodhpur,Rajasthan,India(BWh)
- Karachi,Pakistan(BWh)
- Khartoum,Sudan(BWh)
- Kufra,Libya(BWh)
- Kuwait City,Kuwait(BWh)
- Laayoune,Western Sahara(BWh)
- Lanzarote,Canary Islands,Spain(BWh)[28]
- Las Vegas,Nevada,United States(BWh)
- Lima,Peru(BWh)
- Manama,Bahrain(BWh)
- Mecca,Makkah Region,Saudi Arabia(BWh)
- Mexicali,Baja California,Mexico(BWh)
- Muscat,Oman(BWh)
- Nouakchott,Mauritania(BWh)
- Phoenix,Arizona,United States(BWh)
- Praia,Cape Verde(BWh)
- Punto Fijo,Venezuela(BWh)
- Qom,Iran(BWh)
- Riyadh,Saudi Arabia(BWh)
- Sabha,Libya(BWh)
- Tamanrasset,Algeria(BWh)
- Trujillo,Peru(BWh)
- Timbuktu,Mali(BWh)
- Upington,Northern Cape,South Africa(BWh)
- Yazd,Iran(BWh)
BWk:Cold deserts
- Aktau,Kazakhstan(BWk)
- Antofagasta,Chile(BWk)
- Aral,Kazakhstan(BWk)
- Ashgabat,Turkmenistan(BWk)
- Ciudad Juárez,Chihuahua,Mexico(BWk,bordering onBWh)
- Damascus,Syria(BWk)
- Isfahan,Iran(BWk)
- Kashgar,Xin gian g,China(BWk)
- Kerman,Iran(BWk)
- Khovd,Mongolia(BWk)
- Leh,India(BWk)
- Lorca,Spain(BWk)[29]
- Mendoza,Argentina(BWk)
- Naâma,Algeria(BWk,bordering onBSk)
- Neuquén,Argentina(BWk)
- Nukus,Karakalpakstan,Uzbekistan(BWk)
- Ölgii,Mongolia(BWk)[30]
- St. George,Utah,United States(BWk,bordering onBWh)
- San Juan,Argentina(BWk/BWh)
- Sanaa,Yemen(BWk,bordering onBSk)
- Swakopmund,Namibia(BWk)
- Tabernas,Spain(BWk,bordering onBWh)[29]
- Turpan,Xin gian g,China(BWk)
- Walvis Bay,Erongo Region,Namibia(BWk)
- Yinchuan,Ningxia,China(BWk)
BS:Semi-arid (steppe) climates
BSh:Hot semi-arid
- Ahmedabad,Gujarat,India(BSh,bordering onAw)
- Accra,Ghana(BSh,bordering onAw)
- Aguascalientes (city),Mexico(BSh)
- Alexandria,Egypt(BSh,bordering onBWh)
- Alicante,Spain(BSh)
- Barquisimeto,Venezuela(BSh)
- Broome,Western Australia,Australia(BSh)
- Bushehr,Iran(BSh)
- Coimbatore,Tamil Nadu,India(BSh)
- Dakar,Senegal(BSh)
- Dezful,Iran(BSh)
- Gaborone,Botswana(BSh)
- Hargeisa,Somaliland(BSh)
- Honolulu,Hawaii,United States(BSh)
- Kandahar,Afghanistan(BSh,bordering onBWh)
- Kimberley,Northern Cape,South Africa(BSh)
- Kiritimati,Kiribati(BSh)
- Kurnool,Andhra Pradesh,India(BSh)
- Lahore,Punjab,Pakistan(BSh,bordering onCwa)
- Lampedusa,Sicily,Italy(BSh)
- Los Angeles, California,United States(BSh,bordering onCsa)
- Luanda,Angola(BSh)
- Malakal,South Sudan(BSh)
- Maracaibo,Venezuela(BSh)
- Marrakesh,Morocco(BSh)
- Mogadishu,Somalia(BSh)
- Monte Cristi,Dominican Republic(BSh,bordering onAs)
- Monterrey,Mexico(BSh,bordering onCfa)[31]
- Mosul,Nineveh,Iraq(BSh,bordering onCsa)[32]
- Mount Isa,Queensland,Australia(BSh)
- Murcia,Spain(BSh)
- N'Djamena,Chad(BSh)
- Niamey,Niger(BSh)
- Nicosia,Cyprus(BSh)
- Odessa,Texas,United States(BSh)
- Oranjestad,Aruba(BSh)
- Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso(BSh)
- Patos,Paraíba,Brazil(BSh)
- Petrolina,Pernambuco,Brazil(BSh)
- Piraeus,Greece(BSh)
- Polokwane,South Africa(BSh)
- Querétaro City,Querétaro,Mexico(BSh)
- Santiago del Estero,Argentina(BSh)[33]
- Shiraz,Iran(BSh,bordering onBSk)
- Toliara,Madagascar(BSh)
- Tripoli,Libya(BSh)
- Valencia,Spain(BSh)[28]
- Windhoek,Namibia(BSh)
BSk:Cold semi-arid
- Albacete,Spain(BSk)[28]
- Aleppo,Syria(BSk)
- Alexandra,New Zealand(BSk,bordering onCfb)
- Amman,Jordan(BSk,bordering onBShandCsa)
- Asmara,Eritrea(BSk)
- Astrakhan,Russia(BSk)
- Baku,Azerbaijan(BSk,bordering onBWk)
- Batna,Algeria(BSk)[34]
- Bloemfontein,South Africa(BSk)[35]
- Boise,Idaho,United States(BSk)
- Cochabamba,Bolivia(BSk)[36]
- Comodoro Rivadavia,Argentina(BSk)
- Daraa,Syria(BSk,bordering onBSh)[37]
- Denver,Colorado,United States(BSk)
- Gevgelija,North Macedonia(BSk)
- Herat,Afghanistan(BSk)
- Kabul,Afghanistan(BSk)
- Kalgoorlie,Western Australia,Australia(BSk)
- Kamloops,British Columbia,Canada(BSk)
- Karaj,Iran(BSk)
- Konya,Turkey(BSk)
- Kyzyl,Tuva,Russia(BSk,bordering onDwb)
- L'Agulhas,Western Cape,South Africa(BSk)
- La Quiaca,Jujuy,Argentina(BSk)
- Lethbridge,Alberta,Canada(BSk,bordering onDfb)
- Lhasa,Tibet,China(BSk,bordering onCwbandDwb)
- Madrid,Spain(BSk)
- Mashhad,Iran(BSk)
- Mazar-i-Sharif,Balkh,Afghanistan(BSk,bordering onBSh/BWh/BWk)
- Mildura,Victoria,Australia(BSk,bordering onBSh)
- Navoiy,Uzbekistan(BSk,bordering onBWk)
- Polokwane,Limpopo,South Africa(BSk,bordering onBSh)
- Quetta,Pakistan(BSk)
- Reno,Nevada,United States(BSk)
- Saiq,Oman(BSk)
- Samarkand,Uzbekistan(BSk)
- Santiago,Chile(BSk)
- Saskatoon,Saskatchewan,Canada(BSk,bordering onDfb)
- Shijiazhuang,Hebei,China(BSk)
- Skardu,Pakistan(BSk)
- Sulina,Romania(BSk)[38]
- Tabriz,Iran(BSk,bordering onDsa)
- Thala,Tunisia(BSk,bordering onCsa)
- Tianjin,China(BSk,bordering onDwa)
- Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia(BSk,bordering onDwbandDwc)
- Ulan-Ude,Russia(BSk)
- Viedma,Argentina(BSk)
- Yerevan,Armenia(BSk,bordering onDfa)
- Zacatecas City,Zacatecas,Mexico(BSk)
- Zaragoza,Spain(BSk)
Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates
In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.
The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—windicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation).sindicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer.fmeans significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).[8]
The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—aindicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) whilebindicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), andcindicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F).[8][10][7]
Cs:Mediterranean-type climates
Csa:Hot-summer Mediterranean climates
These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.[39]These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bringfogbut prevent rain.[9]: 221–223
Examples
- Adelaide,Australia(Csa)
- Algiers,Algeria(Csa)
- Angra do Heroísmo,Terceira Island,Portugal(Csa,bordering onCsb/Cfa/Cfb)
- Antalya,Turkey(Csa)
- Athens,Greece(Csa,bordering onBSh)
- Barcelona,Spain(Csa,bordering onCfa)
- Beirut,Lebanon(Csa)
- Casablanca,Morocco(Csa)
- Chitral,Pakistan(Csa,bordering onBSk)
- Dubrovnik,Croatia(Csa)
- Dushanbe,Tajikistan(Csa)
- Erbil,Iraq(Csa)
- Faro,Portugal(Csa)
- Fez,Morocco(Csa)
- Funchal,Portugal(Csa,bordering onAs)
- Gibraltar(Csa)
- Heraklion,Greece(Csa)
- Homs,Syria(Csa)[40]
- Ilam,Iran(Csa)[41]
- Irbid,Jordan(Csa)[42]
- İzmir,Turkey(Csa)
- Jerusalem,Israel(Csa)
- Kardzhali,Bulgaria(Csa,bordering onCfa)[43]
- Kermanshah,Iran(Csa)
- Latakia,Syria(Csa)
- Lisbon,Portugal(Csa)
- Marseille,France(Csa)
- Menorca,Balearic Islands,Spain(Csa)
- Mersin,Turkey(Csa)
- Monaco(Csa)
- Naples,Italy(Csa,bordering onCfa)
- Nice,France(Csa)
- Novorossiysk,Krasnodar Krai,Russia(Csa,bordering onCfa)
- Palermo,Italy(Csa)
- Patras,Greece(Csa)
- Perth,Western Australia,Australia(Csa)
- Podgorica,Montenegro(Csa,bordering onCfa)
- Prodromos,Cyprus(Csa)
- Provo,Utah,United States(Csa,bordering onDsa)
- Rome,Italy(Csa)
- Sacramento,California,United States(Csa)
- Seville,Spain(Csa)
- Sanandaj,Iran(Csa,bordering onDsa)
- Shkodër,Albania(Csa,bordering onCfa)
- Split,Croatia(Csa)
- Tangier,Morocco(Csa)
- Tashkent,Uzbekistan(Csa,bordering onBSk)
- Tecate,Baja California,Mexico(Csa)
- Tel Aviv,Israel(Csa)
- Tlemcen,Algeria(Csa)[44]
- Tunis,Tunisia(Csa)
- Urfa,Turkey(Csa)
- Valletta,Malta(Csa)
- Vatican City(Csa)
- Walla Walla,Washington,United States(Csa)
Csb:Warm-summer Mediterranean climates
Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F), most often in the 40s latitudes. These climates are classified asCsb.[8]
Examples
- Albany,Western Australia,Australia(Csb)
- Aluminé,Neuquén Province,Argentina(Csb)
- Bayda,Libya(Csb)
- Cape Town,South Africa(Csb,bordering onCsa)
- Concepción,Chile(Csb)
- Guarda,Portugal(Csb)
- Ibarra,Ecuador(Csb)
- Korçë,Albania(Csb,bordering onDsb)[45][46]
- Kütahya,Turkey(Csb,bordering onDsb)[47]
- León,Spain(Csb)[28]
- Linares,Chile(Csb)
- Lonquimay,Araucanía Region,Chile(Csb,bordering onCfb)
- Mount Gambier, South Australia,Australia(Csb)
- Nakuru,Kenya(Csb)
- Nanaimo,British Columbia,Canada(Csb)
- Ohrid,North Macedonia(Csb)
- Pasto,Colombia(Csb)
- Port Lincoln,South Australia,Australia(Csb,bordering onCfb)
- Portland,Oregon,United States(Csb)
- Porto,Portugal(Csb)
- Rieti,Italy(Csb)
- Salamanca,Spain(Csb)
- San Carlos de Bariloche,Argentina(Csb)
- San Cristóbal de la Laguna,Spain(Csb)
- San Francisco,California,United States(Csb)
- Seattle,Washington,United States(Csb)
- Siah Bisheh,Iran(Csb)
- Sintra,Portugal(Csb)
- Valladolid,Spain(Csb)
- Victoria,British Columbia,Canada(Csb)
Csc:Cold-summer Mediterranean climates
Cold summer Mediterranean climates (Csc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastalCsbclimate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.[9]Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.
Examples
- Balmaceda,Chile(Csc,bordering onCsb)
- HaleakalāSummit,Hawaii,United States(Csc)
- Liawenee,Australia(Csc,bordering onCfcandCfb)
- Røst,Norway(Csc,bordering onCfc)
- Spirit Lake,Washington,United States(Csc,bordering onDsc)
Cfa:Humid subtropical climates
These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.
The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.[9]: 223–226
Examples
- Astara,Azerbaijan(Cfa,bordering onCsa)
- Asunción,Paraguay(Cfa,bordering onAw)
- Atlanta,Georgia,United States(Cfa)
- Balbalan,Philippines(Cfa,bordering onAm)
- Bandar-e Anzali,Gilan,Iran(Cfa)
- Belgrade,Serbia(Cfa)
- Bologna,Italy(Cfa)
- Bratislava,Slovakia(Cfa,bordering onCfb/Dfa/Dfb)
- Brisbane,Australia(Cfa)
- Budapest,Hungary(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Buenos Aires,Argentina(Cfa)
- Chongqing,China(Cfa,bordering onCwa)
- Ciudad del Este,Paraguay(Cfa)
- Constanța,Romania(Cfa,bordering onBSk)
- Corvo Island,Portugal(Cfa)
- Dir,Pakistan(Cfa)
- Durban,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa(Cfa)
- Florianópolis,Santa Catarina,Brazil(Cfa)
- Florina,Greece(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Geoje,South Korea(Cfa,bordering onCwa)
- Giresun,Turkey(Cfa)
- Girona,Spain(Cfa,bordering onCsa)[28]
- Huesca,Spain(Cfa)
- Ijevan,Tavush,Armenia(Cfa,bordering onDfa)[48]
- Jeju,South Korea(Cfa)
- Juan Fernández Islands,Chile(Cfa,bordering onCfb/Csa/Csb)
- Koper,Slovenia(Cfa)
- Kozani,Greece(Cfa)[49]
- Krasnodar,Russia(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Kutaisi,Georgia(Cfa)
- La Plata,Argentina(Cfa)
- Lugano,Ticino,Switzerland(Cfa,bordering onCfb)
- Lyon,France(Cfa,bordering onCfb)
- Matamoros,Tamaulipas,Mexico(Cfa,bordering onAw)
- Milan,Italy(Cfa)
- Montevideo,Uruguay(Cfa)
- Mostar,Bosnia and Herzegovina(Cfa,bordering onCsa)
- New York City,New York,United States(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Osaka,Japan(Cfa)
- Porto Alegre,Rio Grande do Sul,Brazil(Cfa)
- Prizren,Kosovo(Cfa,bordering onDfaandCfb)[50]
- Rasht,Gilan,Iran(Cfa)
- Rijeka,Croatia(Cfa)
- Rosario,Argentina(Cfa,bordering onCwa)
- Samsun,Turkey(Cfa)
- San Marino(Cfa)
- São Paulo,Brazil(Cfa,bordering onCwa)
- Sari,Mazandaran,Iran(Cfa,bordering onCsa)
- Shanghai,China(Cfa)
- Simferopol,Ukraine(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Skopje,North Macedonia(Cfa,bordering onDfaandBSk)
- Sochi,Russia(Cfa)
- Srinagar,India(Cfa)
- Sydney,Australia(Cfa)
- Taipei,Taiwan(Cfa)
- Tbilisi,Georgia(Cfa,bordering onBSk)
- Tirana,Albania(Cfa,bordering onCsa)
- Tokyo,Japan(Cfa)
- Toulouse,France(Cfa)
- Tulcea,Romania(Cfa,bordering onDfa)
- Ulsan,South Korea(Cfa)
- Varna,Bulgaria(Cfa)
- Valence,France(Cfa,bordering onCfb)
- Venice,Italy(Cfa)
- Wagga Wagga,Australia(Cfa)
- Washington, D.C.,United States(Cfa)
- Wuhan,China(Cfa)
- Yalta,Ukraine(Cfa,bordering onCsa)
- Yokohama,Japan(Cfa)
- Zaqatala,Azerbaijan(Cfa)[51]
- Zonguldak,Turkey(Cfa,bordering onCfb)
Cfb:Oceanic climates
Marine west coast climate
Cfbclimates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates in the 40s and 50s latitudes. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.
These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet.Cfbclimates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".[9]: 226–229
Examples
- Amsterdam,North Holland,Netherlands(Cfb)
- Artvin,Turkey(Cfb,bordering onCfa/Csa/Csb)[52]
- Auckland,New Zealand(Cfb)
- Baltiysk,Kaliningrad Oblast,Russia(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Belfast,Northern Ireland,United Kingdom(Cfb)
- Bergen,Vestland,Norway(Cfb)
- Berlin,Germany(Cfb)
- Bern,Switzerland(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Bilbao,Spain(Cfb)
- Block Island,Rhode Island,United States(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Bolu,Turkey(Cfb)
- Bordeaux,France(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
- Bornholm,Denmark(Cfb)
- Brussels,Belgium(Cfb)
- Caransebeş,Romania(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Cetinje,Montenegro(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Christchurch,New Zealand(Cfb)
- Copenhagen,Denmark(Cfb)
- Dublin,Ireland(Cfb)
- Forks,Washington,United States(Cfb)
- Frankfurt,Hesse,Germany(Cfb)
- Gdynia,Poland(Cfb)
- Geneva,Switzerland(Cfb)
- George,Western Cape,South Africa(Cfb)
- Gijón,Spain(Cfb)
- Glasgow,Scotland,United Kingdom(Cfb)
- Gothenburg,Sweden(Cfb)
- Győr,Hungary(Cfb,bordering onCfa/Dfa/Dfb)
- Heligoland,Germany(Cfb)
- Hobart,Tasmania,Australia(Cfb)
- Île Amsterdam,French Southern and Antarctic Lands(Cfb)
- Île d'Yeu,France(Cfb)
- Ketchikan,Alaska,United States(Cfb)
- L'Aquila,Italy(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
- Ljubljana,Slovenia(Cfb)
- Lofoten,Nordland,Norway(Cfb,bordering onCfc/Dfb/Dfc)
- London,England,United Kingdom(Cfb)
- Luxembourg City,Luxembourg(Cfb)
- Malmö,Sweden(Cfb)
- Mar del Plata,Argentina(Cfb)
- Melbourne,Victoria,Australia(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
- Munich,Bavaria,Germany(Cfb)
- Ørland,Trøndelag,Norway(Cfb)
- Osorno,Los Lagos Region,Chile(Cfb)
- Paris,France(Cfb)
- Port Elizabeth,South Africa(Cfb)
- Prague,Czech Republic(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Prince Rupert,British Columbia,Canada(Cfb)
- Puerto Montt,Los Lagos Region,Chile(Cfb)
- Puerto Natales,Chile(Cfb,bordering onCfc)
- Punta del Este,Uruguay(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
- Salzburg,Austria(Cfb)
- Santander,Spain(Cfb)
- Sarajevo,Bosnia and Herzegovina(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Skagen,Denmark(Cfb)
- Trevico,Italy(Cfb)[53]
- Vaduz,Liechtenstein(Cfb)
- Valdivia,Los Ríos Region,Chile(Cfb)
- Vancouver,British Columbia,Canada(Cfb,bordering onCsb)
- Vienna,Austria(Cfb)
- Villa La Angostura,Neuquén Province,Argentina(Cfb)
- Wellington,New Zealand(Cfb)
- Wollongong,New South Wales,Australia(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
- Wrocław,Poland(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Zagreb,Croatia(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Zürich,Switzerland(Cfb)
Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall
Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (Cfb) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands ofAustralia,such as in or around theGreat Dividing Rangein the north of the state ofNew South Wales,and also sparsely in other continents, such as inSouth America,among others. Unlike a typicalCwbclimate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both theCfbandCfaclimates, but unlike these climates, they have a highdiurnal temperature variationand low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively highelevation.
Examples
- Andorra la Vella,Andorra(Cfb)
- Blue Mountains,Jamaica(Cfb)
- Bogotá,Colombia(Cfb)
- Briançon,France(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Brinchang,Malaysia(Cfb)
- Cameron Highlands,Malaysia(Cfb)
- Campos do Jordão,São Paulo,Brazil(Cfb)
- Canberra,Australian Capital Territory,Australia(Cfb)
- Chachapoyas,Peru(Cfb)
- Cuenca,Ecuador(Cfb)
- Curitiba,Paraná,Brazil(Cfb)
- Dullstroom,South Africa(Cfb)
- Eldoret,Kenya(Cfb)
- Goris,Syunik,Armenia(Cfb,bordering onDfb)
- Hengshan,China(Cfb,bordering onCfa/Dfa/Dfb)
- Kabale,Uganda(Cfb)
- Kodaikanal,India(Cfb)
- La Esperanza,Honduras(Cfb)
- Le Tampon,Réunion,France(Cfb)
- Lithgow,New South Wales,Australia(Cfb)
- Manizales,Colombia(Cfb)
- Maseru,Lesotho(Cfb,bordering onCwb)
- Mthatha,South Africa(Cfb)
- Mucuchíes,Venezuela(Cfb,bordering onCwb)
- Mulia,Indonesia(Cfb)
- Nuwara Eliya,Sri Lanka(Cfb)
- Quito,Pichincha,Ecuador(Cfb)
- Sa Pa,Vietnam(Cfb)
- Soria,Spain(Cfb)
- Teresópolis,Rio de Janeiro,Brazil(Cfb)
- Tunja,Colombia(Cfb)
- Volcano,Hawaii,United States(Cfb)
- Wabag,Papua New Guinea(Cfb)
- Waynesville,North Carolina,United States(Cfb)
- Williams,Arizona,United States(Cfb)
- Xalapa,Veracruz,Mexico(Cfb,bordering onCfa)
Cfc:Subpolar oceanic climate
Subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, generally in the high 50s and 60s latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and the 50s latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.[9]
Examples
- Auckland Islands,New Zealand(Cfc)
- Bø,Nordland,Norway(Cfc,bordering onCfb/Dfb/Dfc)
- Hafnarfjörður,Iceland(Cfc,bordering onDfc)
- Karlsøy,Norway(Cfc,bordering onDfc)
- Miena,Tasmania,Australia(Cfc)
- Punta Arenas,Chile(Cfc)
- Porvenir,Chile(Cfc)
- Reykjavík,Iceland(Cfc)
- Río Grande,Tierra del Fuego,Argentina(Cfc,bordering onBSk/Dfc/ET)
- Río Turbio,Santa Cruz,Argentina(Cfc)
- Stanley,Falkland Islands(Cfc,bordering onET)
- Tórshavn,Faroe Islands(Cfc)
- Unalaska,Alaska,United States(Cfc)
- Værøy,Norway(Cfc,bordering onCsc)
- Vestmannaeyjar,Iceland(Cfc,bordering onET)
Cw:Dry-winter subtropical climates
Cwa:Dry-winter humid subtropical climate
Cwais a monsoonal influenced version of thehumid subtropical climate,having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as theCfaclimates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in theSouthern Coneof South America, theGangetic Plainof South Asia, southeastern Africa, and parts of East Asia and Mexico.
Examples
- Antananarivo,Madagascar(Cwa,bordering onCwb)
- Birgunj,Nepal(Cwa)
- Busan,South Korea(Cwa)
- Changwon,South Korea(Cwa,bordering onCfa)
- Chengdu,Sichuan,China(Cwa)
- Córdoba,Argentina(Cwa)
- Delhi,India(Cwa,bordering onBSh)
- Dinajpur,Bangladesh(Cwa)
- Guadalajara,Jalisco,Mexico(Cwa)
- Guangzhou,Guangdong,China(Cwa)[54]
- Guwahati,India(Cwa,bordering onAw)
- Hanoi,Vietnam(Cwa)
- Hong Kong(Cwa)
- Islamabad,Pakistan(Cwa)
- Kathmandu,Nepal(Cwa)
- León,Guanajuato,Mexico(Cwa)
- Lilongwe,Malawi(Cwa)
- Lubumbashi,Democratic Republic of Congo(Cwa)
- Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh,India(Cwa)
- Luena,Angola(Cwa,bordering onAw)
- Lusaka,Zambia(Cwa)
- Macau(Cwa)
- Mackay,Queensland,Australia(Cwa,bordering onAw)
- Ndola,Zambia(Cwa)
- Phonsavan,Laos(Cwa)
- Pokhara,Nepal(Cwa)
- Pretoria,Gauteng,South Africa(Cwa)
- Qingdao,Shandong,China(Cwa,bordering onDwa)
- Rangpur,Bangladesh(Cwa)
- Rawalpindi,Pakistan(Cwa)
- Saidpur,Bangladesh(Cwa)
- Sialkot,Pakistan(Cwa)
- Siguatepeque,Honduras(Cwa)
- Taunggyi,Myanmar(Cwa)
- Tucumán,Argentina(Cwa)
- Yeosu,South Korea(Cwa)
- Zapopan,Mexico(Cwa)
Cwb:Dry-winter subtropical highland climate
Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (Cwb) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics ofCentral America,South America,Africa,andSouthandSoutheast Asiaor areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.
Examples
- Addis Ababa,Ethiopia(Cwb)
- Arusha,Tanzania(Cwb)
- Batu,Indonesia(Cwb)
- Byumba,Rwanda(Cwb)
- Cajamarca,Peru(Cwb)
- Cherrapunji,India(Cwb)
- Constanza,Dominican Republic(Cwb)
- Cusco,Peru(Cwb)
- Da Lat,Vietnam(Cwb)
- Dali City,China(Cwb)
- Dedza,Malawi(Cwb)
- Diamantina,Brazil(Cwb)
- Dieng Plateau,Indonesia(Cwb)
- Fraijanes,Guatemala(Cwb)
- Gangtok,India(Cwb)
- Hakha,Myanmar(Cwb)
- Harare,Zimbabwe(Cwb)
- Huambo,Angola(Cwb)
- Huaraz,Peru(Cwb)
- Ixchiguán,Guatemala(Cwb,bordering onCwc)
- Johannesburg,South Africa(Cwb)
- Kenscoff,Haiti(Cwb,bordering onAw)
- Kunming,China(Cwb)
- La Trinidad,Philippines(Cwb)
- Lichinga,Mozambique(Cwb)
- Lukla,Nepal(Cwb)
- Mbabane,Eswatini(Cwb)
- Mbeya,Tanzania(Cwb)
- Mexico City,Mexico(Cwb)
- Mokhotlong,Lesotho(Cwb)
- Nairobi,Kenya(Cwb)
- Ndu,Cameroon(Cwb)
- Ooty,India(Cwb)
- Qujing,Yunnan,China(Cwb,bordering onCfb)
- Phongsali,Laos(Cwb)
- Puebla,Mexico(Cwb)
- Quetzaltenango,Guatemala(Cwb)
- Salta,Argentina(Cwb)
- Shimla,India(Cwb)
- Sucre,Bolivia(Cwb)
- Thimphu,Bhutan(Cwb,bordering onCwa)
Cwc:Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate
Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (Cwc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent toCwbclimates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.
- El Alto,Bolivia(Cwc,bordering onET)
- Juliaca,Peru(Cwc,bordering onET)
- La Paz,Bolivia(Cwc,bordering onET)
- Mount Pulag,Philippines(Cwc,bordering onETandCwb)
- Potosí,Bolivia(Cwc,bordering onET)
Group D: Continental/microthermal climates
These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.
Dfa/Dwa/Dsa:Hot summer humid continental climates
Dfaclimates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 °C (72 °F). In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America.Dsaexists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.[9]: 231–32
These climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere because the Southern Hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.
Examples
- Aktobe,Kazakhstan(Dfa)
- Almaty,Kazakhstan(Dfa)
- Aomori,Japan(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
- Boston,Massachusetts,United States(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
- Bucharest,Romania(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
- Çankırı,Turkey(Dfa,bordering onCfaandBSk)
- Cheonan,South Korea(Dfa,bordering onDwa)
- Chicago,Illinois,United States(Dfa)
- Chișinău,Moldova(Dfa)
- Dnipro,Ukraine(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Donetsk,Ukraine(Dfa)
- Hakodate,Japan(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Hamilton,Ontario,Canada(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Iași,Romania(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Kimchaek,North Korea(Dfa,bordering onDwa)
- Minneapolis,Minnesota,United States(Dfa)
- Odesa,Ukraine(Dfa,bordering onCfaandBSk)
- Oral,Kazakhstan(Dfa,bordering onBSk)
- Pleven,Bulgaria(Dfa)
- Pogradec,Albania(Dfa,bordering onCfa/Cfb/Dfb)
- Qabala,Azerbaijan(Dfa,bordering onCfaandDfb)
- Rostov-on-Don,Russia(Dfa)
- Ruse,Bulgaria(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
- Sapporo,Japan(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Saratov,Russia(Dfa)[55]
- Szeged,Hungary(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
- Toronto,Ontario,Canada(Dfa,bordering onDfb)
- Ürümqi,Xin gian g,China(Dfa,bordering onBSk)
- Volgograd,Russia(Dfa,bordering onBSk)[56]
- Windsor,Ontario,Canada(Dfa)
- Zaječar,Serbia(Dfa,bordering onCfa)
In eastern Asia,Dwaclimates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because ofmonsooncirculation.
Examples
- Beijing,China(Dwa,bordering onBSk)
- Blagoveshchensk,Amur Oblast,Russia(Dwa,bordering onDwb)[57]
- Chongjin,North Korea(Dwa)
- Chuncheon,Gangwon Province,South Korea(Dwa)
- Harbin,China(Dwa)
- Incheon,South Korea(Dwa)
- Kaesong,North Korea(Dwa)
- North Platte,Nebraska,United States(Dwa,bordering onDfaandBSk)
- Phillipsburg,Kansas,United States(Dwa,bordering onDfa)
- Pyongyang,North Korea(Dwa)
- Rapid City,South Dakota,United States(Dwa,bordering onBSk)
- Seoul,South Korea(Dwa)
- Xi'an,Shaanxi,China(Dwa,bordering onCwa)
Dsaexists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.
Examples
- Arak,Iran(Dsa,bordering onBSk)
- Bishkek,Kyrgyzstan(Dsa)
- Bitlis,Turkey(Dsa)
- Cambridge,Idaho,United States(Dsa)
- Chirchiq,Uzbekistan(Dsa,bordering onCsa)[58]
- Fayzabad,Badakhshan,Afghanistan(Dsa,bordering onCsa)[59]
- Ghazni,Afghanistan(Dsa)
- Hakkâri,Turkey(Dsa)
- Hamedan,Iran(Dsa,bordering onBSk)
- Isfara,Tajikistan(Dsa)
- Logan,Utah,United States(Dsa)
- Muş,Turkey(Dsa)
- Salt Lake City,Utah,United States(Dsa,bordering onCsa)
- Saqqez,Iran(Dsa)
- Shymkent,Kazakhstan(Dsa,bordering onCsa)
Dfb/Dwb/Dsb:Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates
Dfbclimates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes into the high 50s and low 60s latitudes in central and eastern Europe, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates.[9]
Examples
- Aetomilitsa,Greece(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Akhaltsikhe,Georgia(Dfb)
- Ardahan,Turkey(Dfb)
- Asahikawa,Hokkaido,Japan(Dfb)
- Astana,Kazakhstan(Dfb)
- Augsburg,Bavaria,Germany(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Briceni,Moldova(Dfb)[60]
- Brno,Czech Republic(Dfb)
- Chamonix,France(Dfb)
- Cluj-Napoca,Romania(Dfb)
- Cortina d'Ampezzo,Italy(Dfb)
- Debrecen,Hungary(Dfb,bordering onCfa/Cfb/Dfa)
- Edmonton,Alberta,Canada(Dfb)
- El Pas de la Casa,Andorra(Dfb,bordering onDfc)
- Erzurum,Turkey(Dfb)
- Fairbanks,Alaska,United States(Dfb,bordering onDfc)
- Falls Creek,Victoria,Australia(Dfb,bordering onDfcandCfb)
- Falun,Dalarna,Sweden(Dfb)
- Görlitz,Saxony,Germany(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Gospić,Croatia(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Gyumri,Shirak,Armenia(Dfb)
- Helsinki,Finland(Dfb)
- Imilchil,Morocco(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Innsbruck,Austria(Dfb)
- Karaganda,Kazakhstan(Dfb)
- Kargil,India(Dfb,bordering onDwb)[61]
- Kars,Turkey(Dfb)
- Klagenfurt,Austria(Dfb)
- Košice,Slovakia(Dfb)
- Kraków,Poland(Dfb)
- Kushiro,Hokkaido,Japan(Dfb)
- Kyiv,Ukraine(Dfb)
- La Chaux-de-Fonds,Switzerland(Dfb)
- Lendava,Slovenia(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Lillehammer,Norway(Dfb,bordering onDfc)
- Livno,Bosnia and Herzegovina(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Lviv,Ukraine(Dfb)
- Marquette,Michigan,United States(Dfb)
- Miercurea Ciuc,Romania(Dfb)
- Minsk,Belarus(Dfb)
- Montreal,Quebec,Canada(Dfb)
- Moscow,Russia(Dfb)
- Mount Buller,Victoria,Australia(Dfb,bordering onCfb/Cfc/Dfc)
- Mouthe,France(Dfb)
- Mutsu, Aomori,Japan(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Novosibirsk,Russia(Dfb)
- Oslo,Norway(Dfb)
- Ottawa,Ontario,Canada(Dfb)
- Pavlodar,Kazakhstan(Dfb,bordering onDfa)
- Perisher Valley,New South Wales,Australia(Dfb,bordering onCfb/Cfc/Dfc)
- Portland,Maine,United States(Dfb)
- Poznań,Poland(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Pristina,Kosovo(Dfb,bordering onCfbandCfa)
- Riga,Latvia(Dfb)
- Saint Petersburg,Russia(Dfb)
- Schaan,Liechtenstein(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Sofia,Bulgaria(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Stockholm,Sweden(Dfb)
- Subotica,Serbia(Dfb,bordering onBSk)
- Szombathely,Hungary(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Tallinn,Estonia(Dfb)
- Tampere,Finland(Dfb,bordering onDfc)
- Toblach,Italy(Dfb)[62]
- Trondheim,Norway(Dfb)
- Turku,Finland(Dfb)
- Uppsala,Sweden(Dfb)
- Vilnius,Lithuania(Dfb)
- Warsaw,Poland(Dfb,bordering onCfb)
- Žabljak,Montenegro(Dfb)
Like with all Group D climates,Dwbclimates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.
Examples
- Baruunturuun,Mongolia(Dwb,bordering onDwc)
- Calgary,Alberta,Canada(Dwb,bordering onDfbandBSk)
- Harrison,Nebraska,United States(Dwb,bordering onDfb)
- Heihe,Heilong gian g,China(Dwb)
- Irkutsk,Russia(Dwb,bordering onDwc)
- Khabarovsk,Russia(Dwb,bordering onDwa)
- Pembina,North Dakota,United States(Dwb,bordering onDfb)
- Pyeongchang,South Korea(Dwb)
- Rason,North Korea(Dwb)
- Shigatse,Tibet,China(Dwb)
- Thief River Falls,Minnesota,United States(Dwb,bordering onDwa)
- Vladivostok,Primorsky Krai,Russia(Dwb)
- Yanji,Jilin,China(Dwb)
Dsbarises from the same scenario asDsa,but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.
Examples
- Abali,Iran(Dsb)[63]
- Ağrı,Turkey(Dsb)
- Alto Río Senguer,Chubut Province,Argentina(Dsb,bordering onBSk/Csb/Csc/Dsc)
- Castlegar,British Columbia,Canada(Dsb,bordering onDfb)
- Chaghcharan,Ghor,Afghanistan(Dsb)
- Dras,India(Dsb)
- Flagstaff,Arizona,United States(Dsb,bordering onCsb)
- Jermuk,Vyots Dzor,Armenia(Dsb,bordering onDfb)[64]
- Puente del Inca,Mendoza Province,Argentina(Dsb,bordering onCsb)
- Puerto de Navacerrada,Spain(Dsb,bordering onCsb)[28]
- Rocca di Mezzo,Italy(Dsb,bordering onCsbandCfb)
- Roghun,Tajikistan(Dsb)
- Sivas,Turkey(Dsb)
- South Lake Tahoe, California,United States(Dsb,bordering onCsb)
- Spokane, Washington,United States(Dsb,bordering onDsaandCsb)
Dfc/Dwc/Dsc:Subarctic/boreal climates
Dfc,DscandDwcclimates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.[9]: 232–235
Examples:
- Akureyri,Iceland(Dsc,bordering onCsc)
- Alta,Norway(Dfc)
- Anchorage,Alaska,United States(Dfc,bordering onDfb)
- Arkhangelsk,Russia(Dfc)
- Brocken,Saxony-Anhalt,Germany(Dfc)
- Charlotte Pass,New South Wales,Australia(Dfc)
- Coma Pedrosa,Andorra(Dfc)
- Crater Lake,Oregon,United States(Dsc)
- Delta Junction,Alaska,United States(Dwc,bordering onBSk)
- Feldberg,Baden-Württemberg,Germany(Dfc)
- Fraser,Colorado,United States(Dfc)
- Hikkim,India(Dfc)
- Horská Kvilda,Czech Republic(Dfc)
- Inukjuak,Quebec,Canada(Dsc,bordering onET)
- Jyväskylä,Finland(Dfc)
- Kangerlussuaq,Greenland,Denmark(Dfc,bordering onETandBSk)
- Kiruna,Sweden(Dfc)
- Kopaonik,Serbia(Dfc)
- Labrador City,Newfoundland and Labrador,Canada(Dfc)
- Livigno,Italy(Dfc)
- Luleå,Sweden(Dfc)
- Lysá hora,Czech Republic(Dfc)[65]
- Mohe,Heilong gian g,China(Dwc)
- Nagqu,Tibet,China(Dwc,bordering onET)
- Narsarsuaq,Greenland,Denmark(Dfc,bordering onET)
- Norilsk,Russia(Dfc)
- Nyurba,Russia(Dsc,bordering onDfc)
- Obergurgl,Austria(Dfc,bordering onET)
- Oulu,Finland(Dfc,bordering onDfb)
- Paganella,Italy(Dfc,bordering onDwcandET)
- Røros,Norway(Dfc)
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon,France(Dfc,bordering onDfb)
- Soldotna,Alaska,United States(Dsc)
- St. Moritz,Grisons,Switzerland(Dfc)
- Šerák,Czech Republic(Dfc)
- Štrbské Pleso,Slovakia(Dfc)[66]
- Tromsø,Norway(Dfc)
- Tsetserleg,Arkhangai Province,Mongolia(Dwc)[67]
- Umeå,Sweden(Dfc,bordering onDfb)
- Vaasa,Finland(Dfc)
- Valle Nevado,Chile(Dfc)
- Whitehorse,Yukon,Canada(Dfc)
- Yakutsk,Sakha Republic,Russia(Dfc,bordering onDfd)
- Yellowknife,Northwest Territories,Canada(Dfc)
- Yushu City,Qinghai,China(Dwc,bordering onDwb)
Dfd/Dwd/Dsd:Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters
Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C. These climates occur only in easternSiberia,and are the second coldest, before EF. The coldest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere belonged to this climate. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.[68]
Examples
- Allakh-Yun,Sakha Republic,Russia(Dwd)
- Oymyakon,Sakha Republic,Russia(Dfd)
- Verkhoyansk,Sakha Republic,Russia(Dsd)
Group E: Polar climates
In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:
ET:Tundra climate
Tundra climate(ET): warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and 10 °C. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands.ETclimates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.
Examples
- Alert,Nunavut,Canada(ET,bordering onEF)
- Amdo,Tibet,China(ET)
- Ben Nevis,Scotland,United Kingdom(ET)
- Bouvet Island(ET)
- Cairn Gorm,Scotland,United Kingdom(ET)
- Campbell Island,New Zealand(ET)
- Cerro de Pasco,Peru(ET)[69]
- Crozet Islands(ET)
- Dikson Island,Russia(ET)
- Dingboche,Nepal(ET)
- El Aguilar,Argentina(ET)
- Esperanza Base,Antarctica(ET)
- Finse,Norway(ET)
- Ilulissat,Greenland,Denmark(ET)
- Iqaluit,Nunavut,Canada(ET)
- Ísafjörður,Iceland(ET,bordering onCsc)
- Ittoqqortoormiit,Greenland,Denmark(ET)
- Jan Mayen,Norway(ET)
- Jungfraujoch,Switzerland(ET,bordering onEF)
- Kasprowy Wierch,Poland(ET)
- Kerguelen Islands(ET)
- La Rinconada,Peru(ET)
- Lomnický štít,Prešov Region,Slovakia(ET)[70]
- Longyearbyen,Svalbard,Norway(ET)
- Macquarie Island,Australia(ET)
- Mauna Loa,Hawaii,United States(ET,bordering onCscandCfc)
- Möðrudalur,Iceland(ET)
- Mount Apo,Philippines(ET,bordering onCfc)
- Mount Aragats(slopes),Armenia(ET,bordering onDfc)
- Mount Fuji,Japan(ET)
- Mount Washington,New Hampshire,United States(ET,bordering onDfc)
- Mount Wellington,Tasmania,Australia(ET)
- Murghab,Tajikistan(ET)
- Musala,Bulgaria(ET)[71]
- Mykines,Faroe Islands(ET,bordering onCfc)
- Mys Shmidta,Chukotka,Russia(ET)
- Nevado de Toluca,Mexico(ET)
- North Salang,Afghanistan(ET,bordering onDsc)
- Novaya Zemlya,Arkhangelsk Oblast,Russia(ET)
- Nuuk,Greenland,Denmark(ET)
- Parinacota,Chile(ET)
- Phari,China(ET)
- Piz Corvatsch,Switzerland(ET)
- Prince Edwards Islands(ET)
- Puerto Williams,Chile(ET,bordering onCfc)
- Qarabolaq,Afghanistan(ET)
- Sachs Harbour,Northwest Territories,Canada(ET)
- Shimshal,Pakistan(ET)[72]
- Sněžka,Czech Republic(ET,bordering onDfc)
- Sonnblick,Austria(ET)[73]
- South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands(ET)
- Tanggulashan,Qinghai,China(ET)
- Tiksi,Sakha Republic,Russia(ET)
- Tolhuin,Tierra del Fuego,Argentina(ET,bordering onDfc)
- Trepalle,Italy(ET)
- Ushuaia,Tierra del Fuego,Argentina(ET,bordering onCfc)
- Utqiagvik,Alaska,United States(ET)
- Vârful Omu,Romania(ET)
- Vetas,Colombia(ET)
- Yu Shan,Taiwan(ET)
- Zugspitze,Bavaria,Germany(ET)
EF:Ice cap climate
Ice cap climate(EF): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner Greenland, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).
Examples
- Aconcagua,Chile/Argentina(EF)
- Amundsen–Scott Station,Antarctica(EF)
- Chimborazo,Ecuador(EF)
- Denali,Alaska,United States(EF)
- Dome Fuji,Antarctica(EF)
- Huascarán,Peru(EF)
- Ismoil Somoni Peak,Tajikistan(EF)
- Jengish Chokusu,China/Kyrgyzstan(EF)
- K2,China/Pakistan(EF)
- Kangchenjunga,India/Nepal(EF)
- Kilimanjaro,Tanzania(EF)
- Lhotse,Nepal(EF)
- Makalu,Nepal/China(EF)
- Mount Ararat,Turkey(EF)
- Mount Everest,China/Nepal(EF)
- Mount Logan,Canada(EF)
- Mount Rainier(summit),Washington,United States(EF)
- Ojos del Salado,Chile(EF)
- Pico de Orizaba,Mexico(EF)
- Puncak Jaya,Indonesia(EF,bordering onET)
- Sajama,Bolivia(EF)
- Summit Camp,Greenland,Denmark(EF)
- Ushakov Island,Russia(EF,bordering onET)
- Vostok Station,Antarctica(EF)
Ecological significance
Biomass
The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.[74]
Climate change
Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.[12]The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.[75]
In 2015, aNanjing Universitypaper published inScientific Reportsanalyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".[76]
A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.[77]
Other Köppen climate maps
All maps use the ≥0 °C definition for the temperate-continental border.[8]
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North America
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Europe
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Russia
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Central Asia
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East Asia
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South America
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Africa
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Western Asia
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South Asia
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Southeast Asia
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Melanesia/Oceania
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Australia
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New Zealand
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World (1991–2020)
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World (2071–2099, SSP245)
See also
References
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External links
- World maps and graphs plus a video about the Köppen climate classification
- World Map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification for the period 1951–2000(archived 6 September 2010)
- New gridded maps of Koeppen's climate classificationat theWayback Machine(archived 10 January 2021)
Climate records
- IPCC Data Distribution Center(archived 18 April 2016)