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K2 Black Panther

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For the Chinese light tank also called Black Panther, seeType 15 tank.
K2 Black Panther
K2 Black Panthers of the11th Maneuver Divisionof theRepublic of Korea Armyin tank field training
TypeMain battle tank
Place of originSouth Korea
Service history
In service2014–present
Used bySeeOperators
Production history
DesignerAgency for Defense Development
Doosan Mottrol
Hyundai Rotem
Poongsan Corporation
Samsung Thales
Samyang Comtech
WIA
Designed1995–2008
ManufacturerHyundai Rotem
Unit cost₩7.8 billion (production batch 1)[1]
US$8.5 million(constant 2009 USD)
Produced2008–present
No.builtLot1: 100
Lot 2: 106[2]
Lot 3: 54[3]
Lot 4: 150 (planned)[4]
Total: 410
Specifications
MassCombat weight: 56 metric tons (55 long tons; 62 short tons)[5]
LengthOverall: 10.8 meters (35 ft 5 in)
Chassis:7.5 meters (24 ft 7 in)
Width3.6 meters (11 ft 10 in)
HeightHighest: 2.4 meters (7 ft 10 in)
Lowest: 2 meters (6 ft 7 in)
Crew3 (commander, gunner and driver)
ArmorPOSCOMIL-12560H armor steel andSamyang Comtechsilicon carbidenon oxide ceramic plate along withERAandNERAmodular add-on armor in addition to soft-kill and hard-killactive protection systems
Main
armament
Hyundai WIACN08 120 mm 55 caliber smoothbore gun(40 rounds)
Secondary
armament
1×12.7×99mm (.50 BMG)K6 heavy machine gun(3,200 rounds)
1×7.62×51mm NATOcoaxialmachine gun(12,000 rounds)
Engine
Power/weight27.3 hp/t (20.35 kW/t)[5]
Transmission
  • Lot 1, 2:RENKHSWL 295 TM(5 forward, 5 reverse gears), dry weight: 2,450 kg
  • Lot 3:SNT DynamicsEST15K (6 forward, 3 reverse gears, in development), dry weight: 2,500 kg[8]
SuspensionSemi-activein-arm suspension unit (ISU) with dynamic track tension system (DTTS)[5]
Fuel capacity1,296 liters (342 U.S. gal)
Operational
range
450 km (280 mi)[5]
Maximum speedPaved road: 70 km/h (43 mph)
Cross country: 50 km/h (31 mph)[5]
Acceleration from 0–32 km/h (0–20 mph) in 7.47 seconds (MT883 Ka-501) or 8.77 seconds (DV27K)

K2 Black Panther(Korean:K-2 흑표;Hanja:K-2 hắc báo;RR:K-2 Heukpyo) is a South Koreanmain battle tank,designed by theAgency for Defense Developmentand manufactured byHyundai Rotem.The tank's design began in the 1990s to meet the strategic requirements of theRepublic of Korea Army's reform forthree-dimensional,high-speedmaneuver warfare[9]based on use ofnetwork-centric warfare.[10][11][12]

Mass production began in 2013, and the first K2s were deployed with the South Korean armed forces in July 2014.[13]

History[edit]

Development[edit]

South Korea has been accumulating tank development and production technology to increase its self-reliance in producing arms. In 1976, South Korea upgraded itsM48 Pattontanks. In 1987, theK1 88-Tank,designed byGeneral Dynamics Land Systems(GDLS), was commissioned for service. South Korea participated in its development, and gained tank development capability. The K1 was a derivative ofM1 Abrams,designed by Americans and produced in South Korea, and its associated legal agreements limited South Korea's rights forexport,logistics,and future enhancements.[11][12][14][15]

In the early 1990s, Korean engineers suggested producing a new domestically designed tank using the latest available technology, but the military refused due to cost overruns. Instead, South Korea chose to upgrade the K1, and received a technical data upgrade package from GDLS. However, it was limiting its involvement to increase its domestic capability and experience while taking the responsibility for failure. South Korea advanced in turret designs,fire-controlling systems,sights, andcomposite armorsduring this process. The operational prototype of the new variantK1A1was later displayed in 1996, but the1997 Asian financial crisisdelayed itsmass production.South Korea worked on further localization during the delay and managed to develop its own designs or produce most parts of the K1A1 under license.[12][15]

XK2 PV1 at the rollout ceremony in March 2007

While the K1A1 development was ongoing, South Korea began to plan a new domesticmain battle tankas its tank design and manufacturing capability matured. There were three main reasons for the development of the new tank:

Firstly, despite the increase in localization, K1A1 was still an American design that falls under the United States'export controlto protectintellectual rights,which creates a burden when exporting.

Secondly, the M48A3K and the M48A5K operated by theSouth Korean militarywere older designs and needed to be replaced with newer, better designs.[16][17]

Thirdly, theRepublic of Korea Armywas adapting new tactics calledthree-dimensionalhigh-speedmaneuver warfarewithnetwork-centric warfare.[9][10]When developers asked the Army what kind of performance the Army wanted to see with the new tank, the Army replied that network warfare capability forcommand and controlis the top priority, notfirepower,defense, ormobility.This new capability would need to be built into the new tank.[11][12]

Criticism was made on the new tank developments: "It seemed to many to be too early to adopt a new model, and there were also doubts because it would be the first tank ever designed domestically." However, consensus of the defense sector (the politicians, the military, and developers) viewed the K1 tanks as a "humiliation", because the tank itself was a proof that South Korea lacked in tank developing technology. It was a matter of national pride to have the ability to design and build a leading main battle tank.[12]

Developers claimed that during times of war,military logisticsandsupportof armaments could stop when geopolitics came into play, as witnessed in theMiddle EastandEastern Europe.There were also criticisms of many European nations as lacking investment in domestic warfare technology, and relying too much on weapons frompartnerships.Historically, South Korea always maintained a policy of self-reliance on weapons, and so the new tank program was authorized.[12]

From July 1995 to December 1997, system concept research was conducted including analysis of required operational capability (ROC), function, performance, operations, logistics, and the technology required. The first step was to develop a modeling and simulation system for theoretical study and analysis. South Korean developers invited experts from around the world, includingSven Berge(Stridsvagn 103),Philip Lett(M1 Abrams),Israel Tal(Merkava), Hayashi Iwao (Type 90), andRichard Ogorkiewiczfor a 40-hour seminar to help guide the concepts of the new tank development. Per prior agreement, all the presentations were recorded, and used for guiding system development of the new tank. Then seven researchers of theAgency for Defense Development(ADD), who were responsible for designing the tank, were sent to theUnited Kingdomfor a year of tank development education.[12][17][18]

From November 1998 to December 2002, private companies joined the ADD duringexploratory research,and developed core technologies and systems including thetank gun,the electric gun and turret drive system (EGTDS), and the gunautoloader.Other key systems and tests included automatic target detection & tracking, and cognitive identification ability of the combat control system along with its simulator, thesemi-active in-arm suspensionunit to dramatically increase mobility performance, and theproximity fuse(within 7 meters) for multi-purposeHEATmunition (to shoot down helicopters).[12][18][19]

XK2 PV3 firing its cannon

In 2002,Hilmi Özkök,the commander ofTurkish Land Forces,visited the research center and witnessed the simulator capabilities and an actual model of the combat control system. Afterward, Turkey continuously sent its dignitaries to closely monitor progress, and it eventually led to cooperation in developing Turkey'sAltay.[12]

The K2 Black Panther on static display

From January 2003 to 2007, a number of test vehicles were built: two test vehicles, the MTR (Mobility Test Rig) and FTR (Firepower Test Rig), and three PV (Pilot Vehicles) were built to demonstrate technology and performance. MTR and FTR conducted mobility, fire control, combat control, and low temperature operating life tests, while PV1, PV2, and PV3 conducted tests on endurance, developer, operator, andintegrated logistics support.[17]The last prototype was unveiled on 2 March 2007 at theproving groundinChangwon,[19][20]and the development was officially completed after being declared fit for combat by theDefense Acquisition Program Administration(DAPA) in September 2008. The XK2 development project, which began in 1995 and ended in 2008, cost a total of 452.6 billionwonspread over 14 years.[21]The K2 tank began to be called the Black Panther for its speed and valiance.[22]

Improvement[edit]

In 2020,Samyang Comtech,which produces composite armors, began developing an improvement of front armors for K2 export variants,[23]and later it changed to a modification and development project to completely improve the modular armor for export variants organized by theDefense Agency for Technology and Quality(DTaQ) in 2021.[24]

The third mass-produced K2, which began in 2022, included an improvedBattlefield Management Systemwith the Korean Variable Message Format (KVMF),[25][26]and theKorean Commander's Panoramic Sight (KCPS) and Korean Gunner's Primary Sight (KGPS)with improved resolution and daytime automatic target tracking function.[27][28][29]

Design[edit]

Weapon system and munitions[edit]

The main gun and its munitions were developed simultaneously. In the early to mid 1990s, South Korea learnedinternal ballistics,external ballistics,andterminal ballisticsfor tank guns while license producing theKM256 tank gun;they inventedself-sharpening tungsten penetratorfor 120 mmAPFSDSmunitions during the K1A1 program. Using acquired technology, engineers decided to increase firepower with longer gun barrels and enhanced propellants that wereNATO compatible.[11][30]

Compared to the 5.3 meters (17 ft) long 44 caliber KM256, the new gun was 6.6 meters (22 ft) in length and sent out projectiles at 12-13MJ,which was a huge increase from 8-9 MJ. Since the projectile travels athypersonic speedor at a muzzle velocity of 1,760 m/s (with K279), it was critical to develop heat resistance material and stabilization of the projectile.[11][30][31][32][33]Early designs included an unmanned turret variant, which was scrapped in favor of a manned turret during initial exploratory development. Another plan was to equipRheinmetall's experimentalNPzK-140140 mm smoothbore gun, but this plan was also scrapped due to issues regardingincomplete combustionof 140 mm munitions.[34]

A K2 tank on display along with its K280HEAT-MP-Tmunition rounds and K6 heavy machine gun rounds

South Korea originally planned to receive technology transfer ofchrome platingon tank guns fromSwitzerland,only a handful of nations having such technology. However, the plan was changed to domestic development after hearing the refusal from Swiss firm. Engineers first tried chrome plating on the KM256 tank gun used by K1A1, then coincidentally found a classified method while reworking on defect-plated guns.[12]

The Black Panther is armed with a chrome platedCN08 120 mm 55 caliber smoothbore gundeveloped by the ADD and WIA (nowHyundai WIA), and is capable of hitting a 30 centimeters (12 in) size object at range greater than 1 kilometer (0.62 mi).[11][35][36]This is complemented by a home-grown bustle-type autoloader, similar to theLeclerc,which allows the tank to fire up to 10 rounds per minute.[12][37][38]The laserbarcodeidentifier of the autoloader recognizes the classification of pre-barcoded ammunition and selects a type of munition for loading based on mission need. The ammunition is loaded in a 16-shell magazine for ready-to-use, and 24 rounds at frontal hull, carrying a total of 40 rounds for its main armament.[38]

The K2's primary anti-tank munitions, developed by the ADD andPoongsan Corporation,are the K279 APFSDS-T, designed with self-sharpening technology for armored targets, and the K280 HEAT-MP-T, a multipurpose chemical energy round with a proximity fuse that explodes within 7 meters from the target, for all types of targets including low-flying helicopters.[12]

Secondary weapons include a 12.7 mmK6 Heavy Machine Gunand a 7.62 mm M60E2-1 coaxial machine gun. The trigger pull of the coaxial machine gun lightened from 4 kilograms (8.8 lb) to 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) for convenience.[11]

Korean Smart Top-Attack Munition (KSTAM)[edit]

Main article:KSTAM

The Korean Smart Top-Attack Munition (KSTAM) is afire-and-forget,top-attack anti-tank munition with an effective operating range of 2–8 kilometers (1.2–5.0 mi), developed specifically for use with the K2. It is launched as a kinetic energy projectile, fired from the main gun in a high trajectory profile comparable to that of amortar.Upon reaching its designated target area, a parachute deploys, giving on-boardmillimeter bandradar,infraredandradiometersensors time to seek and acquire stationary or moving targets.[39][40]

When a target is acquired, anexplosively formed penetrator(EFP) is fired from a top-down position, to exploit the weaker top armor of tanks. Target acquisition can also be directed manually by the tank crew via a remote link. These characteristics allow the launch vehicle to remain concealed behind cover while firing successive rounds towards the known location of an enemy, or provide indirect fire support against targets hidden behind obstacles and structures.[39][40]

Fire-control system and optics[edit]

Aplatoonof K2 tanks inlive fire exercise

The fire-control system (FCS) consists gunner's primary sight (GPS), commander's panoramic sight (CPS),ballisticcalculator, electrical gun and turret drive system (EGTDS), and dynamicmuzzle reference system(DMRS).[11]

The K2 is equipped with an advanced fire-control system linked to anExtremely High Frequency(EHF)L-bandPulsed Doppler Radarsystem deployed on the frontal arc of the turret,[41]along with a VAS-1Kraman laserrangefinderand crosswind sensor. The system is capable of a "lock-on" mode, which can acquire and track specific targets up to a range of 9.8 kilometers (6.1 mi) using athermographic camera.[20][34][42]This allows the crew to fire accurately while moving as well as engage low-flying aircraft.

The fire-control system is also linked to an advanced gun stabilizer and trigger-delay mechanism to optimize accuracy while moving in uneven terrain. If the trigger on the main gun is pulled at the same time the tank encounters an irregularity in the terrain, oscillation of the gun barrel will cause temporary misalignment between a mirror-type laser reflector at the top of the barrel and a laser emitter (vertical sensor unit) at the base. This will delay the fire-control system from activating until the beam is re-aligned, improving the chances of hitting the intended target.[38][43]

The Korean Commander's Panoramic Sight (KCPS) and the Korean Gunner's Primary Sight (KGPS) are present in the Black Panther as in the original series ofK1A1tanks, albeit redesigned to utilize the more advanced sensors and armaments deployed on the K2.[34][42]The K2's Korean Gunner's Primary Sight adopts a thermographic camera that is more advanced than K1A1, and the sight provides 4x and 15x magnifications using theopticalsystem, and 30x and 60x magnifications using adigital image processor.[44]

Thetank gunandturretare powered by an EGTDS developed byHyundai Rotemand Doosan Mottrol (nowMottrol). The EGTDS provides high efficiency and high precision drive control, and its performance is improved by 3-axis stabilization. It is also designed to minimize vibration and noise when the turret is driven.[19][45]The turret achieved a rotating speed of 800 mil (45 degrees) per second at the prototype stage.[12]

The commander of the tank has the ability to override the gunner's command, to take control of the turret and gun. Moreover, unconfirmed reports state that, in the event of an emergency, the vehicle can be operated by only two crew members, or even a single one. It is speculated that the fire-control system can automatically spot and track visible targets, compare them using the data link established with other friendly vehicles to prevent redundant target engagements, and fire its main gun without manual input.

Automatic Target Detection and Tracking System[edit]

A cold weather combat training of the11th Divisionof the ROK Army

K2 has an Automatic Target Detection and Tracking System controlled by theAutomatic Target Recognitionalgorithm.[46][47][48]When the target is identified as a foe by theIFF/SIF(Identification Friend or Foe/Selective Identification Feature) system, the tank automatically aims and performs laser distance measurements on the target even if the tank is maneuvering on irregular terrain while the target is moving. It canlead the targetand fire automatically based on ballistic data calculated by the turret mounted laser rangefinder and crosswind sensor.[19][38][46]This feature enhances the performance of inexperienced gunners significantly.[11]

Network-centric warfare capabilities and operability[edit]

Tactical information communication[edit]

The K2 houses the following features which help to improve situational awareness for the crew:

  • C4I(Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence) uplink.[5][48]
  • GPS/INS(Global Positioning Satellite/Inertial Navigation System) combined navigation system.[5][10][49]
  • IFF/SIF(Identification Friend or Foe/Selective Identification Feature) system compliant withSTANAG 4579.[5][10][48]Located on the main gun mantlet, just above the gun, the system fires a 36 GHz beam in the direction of the gun for a response from the targeted vehicle. If a proper response signal is shown by the target, the fire control system automatically identifies it as a friendly.[50][51]If the target fails to respond to the identification signal, it is then declared as a hostile.
  • C4I linkedBMS(Battlefield Management System) allows the vehicle to share its data with friendly units, including otherarmored vehiclesandhelicopters.[5][10][29][48]

Operability and maintenance[edit]

The following features are provided for crew operability and system maintenance:

  • Network-based tank combattraining systemutilizing 3Dvirtual realitytechnology. The embedded training computer designed for the K2 allowsdriving,gunnery, single tank combat,platoonlevel combat and command and platoon leaders combat training, and allows real-time information sharing and training with friendly tanks through a network system.[5][49][52][53]
  • Built-in test(BIT) feature to verify the integrity of the tank system. The BIT system provides the convenience of checking the tank for defects in its main functions without any externaltest equipment.[49][53]

Work is also under way to integrate theexperimental autonomous vehicle,unmanned wheeled reconnaissance drone into the Black Panther's systems, giving the tank's crew the ability to scout without disclosing its location.

Defensive capabilities[edit]

Passive protection systems[edit]

ERA on the upper surface of the front hull
ERA of turret and hull side

Despite South Korea producing K1 tanks, GDLS strictly prohibited Koreans from using theSpecial Armor Package(SAP), which was identical to that of the M1 Abrams, in order to protect the United States' intellectual property rights and national security. Armor for main battle tanks was commonly regarded as top secret and its technology was unlikely to be exported. Therefore, developing domestic armor was the only option in order to design a tank.[30]The ADD andSamyang ComtechdevelopedKorean Special Armor Plate(KSAP) for the K1A1 project, and South Korea also keeps most information in secret.[23][54][55]In 1996, South Korea received 1,250 hp variant Russian domestic specificationT-80Usalong withKontakt-5explosive reactive armor(ERA), and studied its composite armor and ERA technology, which contributed to development of domestic armors.[56][57]

The K2 uses amodulararmor system in order to replace the inner material much quicker when it is damaged or whenever an enhanced version is available.[11][54]Its armor was redesigned based on K1A1's KSAP, and is made ofPOSCOMIL-12560H armor steel,[36][58][59]Samyang Comtechsilicon carbide(SiC)ceramicplates, andaluminum(Al).[55][60]The frontal armor has been claimed to be effective against the 120 mm APFSDS round fired from theL55gun.[61]ERA blocks are also present, with the addition of ultra-high hardness and high-hardness armor package andnon-explosive reactive armor(NERA) planned for the K2 Product Improvement Program (PIP) and export variant specification.

Inside the tank, apositive pressureandair conditioningsystem is installed to protect the tank crew fromchemicalandbiological weapons,[62][63]anautomatic fire suppressionsystem is programmed to detect and put out any internal fires that may occur, and atmospheric sensors alert the crew if the tank enters a hazardous environment.[5][64][65][66]The K2'scollective protectionsystem, which integrates positive pressure and air conditioning devices, has aventilationcapacity of 180 m3/h and acoolingcapacity of 7,500 kcal/h.[67]In addition, the interior of the tank is equipped with a neutron shielding liner made of apolyethylene-boron moderatorto protect the tank crew fromneutron radiationcaused bynuclear explosions.[62][63][65]

Active protection systems[edit]

The tank is equipped withRadar Warning Receiver(RWR) andLaser Warning Receiver(LWR), which detecthoming radarorhoming laseraimed at the tank and instantaneously turn the turret in the direction of threats as well as notifying friendly units via network system.[68][69]The tank also has a total of 12 (6 on each side of the turret)Samyang ChemicalK415 Visible/IR Screening Smoke Grenade. The K415 blocks visible and infrared view of the K2 from the enemy.[70]

K2 tanks deploy K415 smoke grenades and fire during maneuver drills.

The K2 has aMultispectralScreening Smoke Grenade (MSSG) soft-killactive protection system.[note 1]If aanti-tank guided missile(ATGM) is fired at the K2, the tank immediately warns crews and triangulate the projectile for activatingSNT DynamicsSLS (Soft-kill Launcher System)[71]that releases K419 multispectral screening smoke grenade,[70]manufactured by Samyang Chemical, in the direction of the incoming missile at the most effective time.[72][73][74][75]The multispectral screening smoke grenades hide tank fromvisible,forward-looking infrared,andmillimeter waveoptics and radar thus disrupt accuracy of missile.[11][76]

The SLS is located at the rear center of the turret top, and is assisted by twoMissile Warning Receiver(MWR) on the frontal turret using L-band pulsed doppler radar. Each system covers 90 degrees (total 180 degrees) and 60 degrees at a high angle, and is capable of detectingwire-guided missiles,which does not emit its own radar.[41]The MWR will also be responsible for tracking and targeting incoming missiles for the hard-kill active protection system in future upgrades.

Mobility and maneuverability[edit]

A demonstration of maneuverability of the K2 Black Panther

The K2 can travel at speeds of up to 70 km/h (43 mph) on road surfaces, accelerate from 0 to 32 km/h (0 to 20 mph) within 7.47 seconds (MT883 Ka-501 engine) or 8.77 seconds (DV27K engine),[77][78]and maintain speeds of up to 50 km/h (31 mph) in off-road conditions. It can also climb 60% slopes (31 degrees) and vertical obstacles 1.3 meters in height.[16]Due to the relatively compact design of the engine, the designers were able to fit an additional compactAuxiliary Power Unit(APU)[79]into the remaining compartment space. This is capable of producing 8~10 kW, and intended to act as an auxiliary power unit with which the tank may power its on-board systems when its main engine is turned off. It will also allow the tank to conserve fuel when idling and minimize the vehicle's thermal and acoustic signatures.

In-arm Suspension Unit (ISU)[edit]

K2 demonstrating posture control function

The Black Panther fields an advanced semi-active suspension system, called thein-arm suspension unit(ISU),[5]which allows for individual control of every bogie on the tracks. This posture control function can tilt thechassisor lower the overall height by 40 centimeters (16 in).[68]This allows the K2 to "sit", "stand" and "kneel", as well as "lean" towards one side or a corner. "Sitting" gives the tank a lower profile and offers superior handling over roads. "Standing" gives the vehicle higher ground clearance for maneuverability over rough terrain.[19]"Kneeling" augments the angular range in which the tank's gun barrel can elevate and depress, allowing the vehicle to fire its main gun downhill as well as engage low-flying aircraft more effectively. Theheight adjustable suspensionsystem detects rough road surface conditions in real time through the movement of the first road wheel in front and collects data, and the five road wheels in the rear automatically control the hydraulic pressure of the in-arm suspension unit andvariable damperbased on this terrain data to maintain optimal driving performance.[67]

The unique suspension system of the Black Panther expands the gun's elevation angles, allowing it to target from a high hill or a low valley. This makes it particularly effective in mountainous areas with steep hills or even in urban cities with tall buildings. K2 can elevate its main gun up to 24 degrees, which allows a curved trajectory attack at a hovering helicopter target 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) away.[80]The suspension system also cushions the chassis from vibrations when traveling over uneven terrain, as the bogies can be individually adjusted on the fly. This contributes to the comfort and overall condition of the operators engaged in fierce battles. The compact in-arm suspension unit with the integration ofgas springsand dampers is mounted independently on the side of the chassis to provide additional interior space.[81]

The K2 also has advanced track system called Dynamic Track Tension System (DTTS). Maintaining optimum tension through all maneuvers, it dramatically reduces the chance of throwing a track even in the most extreme situations. The DTTS is also designed to maintain optimal track tension while K2 is maneuvering to minimize the excessive load on the track and prevent the track from peeling off the road wheels.[45][82]

Snorkel System[edit]

K2 tank fording a shallow river
K2 tank with snorkel

The K2 Black Panther is a unique tank equipped with advanced snorkel capabilities, enabling it to navigate challenging battlefields with numerous rivers. It is fully protected from biochemical attacks by a sealed and air circulation system. This allows the tank to independently cross rivers and reach the battlefield faster than others that require engineers to build bridges or boats for river crossings. The vehicle can cross rivers as deep as 4.1 meters using asnorkel system,[5]which also serves as aconning towerfor the tank commander. The system takes approximately 20–30 minutes to prepare.[83][80]The turret becomes watertight while fording, but the chassis can take in 1,900 liters (500 U.S. gal) of water to prevent excessive buoyancy from air inside the vehicle and keep the tracks planted firmly on the ground. Furthermore, the tank can enter combat-ready status as soon as it resurfaces. It is said that K2's predecessor, K1, can cross a river of 2 meter depth after 2 hours of preparation, which also requires assistance from military engineers. However, a K2 tank does not require outside assistance for river crossing.[80][84]This type of self water-crossing ability is beneficial from a tactical perspective, as it allows for more attacking routes.

Engines and powertrains[edit]

In March 2011, South KoreanDefense Acquisition Program Administration(DAPA) announced that mass production of the K2, which the Army was expecting to deploy in 2012, would not happen due to problems concerning its engine and transmission.[85]In the evaluation test conducted in March 2012, it was reported that the domestic powerpack did not meet the required operational capability (ROC) proposed by theMinistry of National Defensein three categories: cooling fan speed control, maximum power at low temperature, and acceleration performance.[86]

In April 2012, DAPA announced that due to ongoing issues with the reliability and durability of the domestically produced powerpack, the first 100 production K2s would use German-madeEuro Powerpackand that service entry would be delayed until March 2014.[87]The first 15 K2 Black Panther tanks were put into service in June 2014. Faulty domestic engines and transmissions previously halted production, but the lowering of required acceleration performance allowed it to enter service.[88]Until domesticDoosan Infracore(now HD Hyundai Infracore) 1,500 hp engines were produced, the first mass production was employed with a German-made MTU powerpack, which was able to produce 100 vehicles by 2015.[3]

Hyundai Rotem signed a contract from the second batch of 106 K2 tanks in December 2014, but the vehicles continued to have powerpack issues due to the domesticSNT Dynamicstransmission failing durability tests. After SNT Dynamics complained about the domestic powerpack test standards, the 107th Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee held on November 29, 2017, gave it an opportunity to retest the durability of the transmission, but SNT Dynamics refused to retest the durability of the transmission.[89]In February 2018, DAPA announced the second batch would have a "hybrid" powerpack consisting of the locally developed engine with the GermanRENKtransmission system, allowing them to start entering service in 2019. An additional contract for the production of a third batch of about 110 K2s is to follow within the next several years.[90]

On 25 November 2020, the 131st Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee decided to produce tanks in a powerpack that combines domestic engines and German transmissions in the third batch because SNT Dynamics refused to retest the durability of the domestic transmission.[91]

On 6 December 2021, a senior SNT Dynamics official said it solved a technical problem with the transmission defect, and only the Ministry of National Defense's durability test remains in the first half of next year, and the fourth production of the K2 tank will include domestic transmission.[92]

K2 product improvement program (K2 PIP)[edit]

First prototype of the XK2 with an integrated hard-kill active protection system

The K2 PIP is an improved version of the initial production model of the K2. Improvements will include:

  • Upgraded modulararmor packagemade of ultra-high hardness and high-hardness armor steel combiningnanotechnology,developed for the K2 export variant.[23][24][93][94]
  • Upgrading the semi-active in-arm suspension unit to an active in-arm suspension unit.
  • Integration of a high-resolution terrain-scanning system to the vehicle's suspension system. This is purported to allow the vehicle to "plan ahead" by scanning nearby terrain up to 50 meters away in all directions and calculate the optimal position of the bogies in order to improve vehicle handling over uneven terrain.
  • Integration of a hard-killactive protection system.
  • Addition ofnon-explosive reactive armor.
  • Potentially replacing the 120 mm / L55 gun with anelectrothermal-chemical gun,which will significantly increase the vehicle's firepower and potential payload.[95]Later, the plan was scrapped because ADD succeeded in developing a new desensitized propellant for 120 mm munition.

Korean Active Protection System (KAPS)[edit]

TheKorean Active Protection System(KAPS) is an indigenously developed hard-kill active protection system designed to protect the K2 from anti-tank threats. It uses a three-dimensional detection and tracking radar and a thermal imager to detect incoming threats.[96][97][98]Warheads can be detected out to 150 meters from the tank, and a defensive rocket is fired to destroy them at 10–15 meters away.[99][100]

The system can neutralizerocket-propelled grenadesand anti-tank guided missiles. It may be installed on other platforms in the future like warships, helicopters, and buildings. Unit price per system is₩670 million ($600,000).[101]Implementation of the KAPS was cancelled in 2014 due to budgetary issues along with the price of a K2 being at 8 billion won, with addition of the KAPS it would increase procurement costs by 1 billion won per unit.[102]

Production[edit]

Mass production[2][103][104][105][106]
Batch Year Engine Transmission Total Notes
I 2014~2015 STX Engine/MTU FriedrichshafenMT883 Ka-501 4-short stroke,12-cylinder water-cooled diesel, dry weight: 2,064 kg[6] RENKHSWL 295 TM 5 forward, 5 reverse gears, dry weight: 2,450 kg 100 Domestic powerpack supply was rejected in the first batch plan due to defects and reliability issues.[86][87]Later, the first batch adopted a modified MT883 Ka-501 engine produced under license by STX Engine through partnership with MTU.[107]
II 2019~2020 HD Hyundai InfracoreDV27K 4-long stroke,12-cylinder water-cooled diesel, dry weight: 2,550 kg[7] RENK HSWL 295 TM 106 AfterSNT Dynamics,the manufacturer of the domestic transmission, refused to retest the transmission's durability,DAPAdecided to combine the domestic engine with the German transmission to produce the tank.[90]
III 2022~2023 HD Hyundai Infracore DV27K SNT Dynamics EST15K 6 forward, 3 reverse gears, dry weight: 2,500 kg[8]
(later changed to RENK HSWL 295 TM) 		54 Because SNT Dynamics did not participate in the durability test, the decision was made to keep the German-built one for the third batch.[91]It also includes an improved battlefield management system with the Korea Variable Message Format (KVMF), and the Korean Commander's Panoramic Sight (KCPS) and Korean Gunner's Primary Sight (KGPS) with improved resolution and daytime automatic target tracking function.[28][29]At the request of thePolish government,10 of the 54 K2s were deployed to the20th Mechanized Brigadeof thePolish Land Forcesafter being delivered to Poland on 5 December 2022.[108][109][110][111][112][113]
IV 2024~2028 HD Hyundai Infracore DV27K SNT Dynamics EST15K (conditional supply approval)[note 2][114] 183 (later changed to 150 units) On July 27, 2022,Polish Armaments Group(PGZ) and Hyundai Rotem signed aframework agreementto supply 180 K2 tanks to the Polish Land Forces. Due to the signing of the agreement, a review of the production of 183 tanks scheduled for delivery to theSouth Korean Armyhas been delayed, and 180 K2 tanks will be delivered to the Polish Land Forces from 2022.[104][105][115][116][117][118]On 25 May 2023, the 154th Defense Acquisition Program Promotion Committee deliberated and approved a plan to mass-produce 150 K2s with a budget of 1.94 trillionwonfor the fourth batch of the ROK Army.[4][106]

Exports[edit]

Turkey[edit]

See also:Altay (main battle tank)
Altay

After competing against the Leclerc andLeopard 2,the K2 established its first export customer inTurkey.In June 2007, South Korea and Turkey successfully negotiated an arms deal contract worth ₩500 billion (approximately $540 million) licensing the K2's tank design as well as exporting 40 (+15)KT-1trainer planes to Turkey.[119]On 29 July 2008, a year after the first negotiations between the South Korean and Turkish governments ended, Hyundai Rotem andOtokarsigned a design assistance andtechnology transfercontract for the Altay tank development project. The contract included design assistance and technology transfer regarding the systems, 120 mm tank guns and armor packages required for tank development.[120][121][122][123]

South Korean companies involved in the Altay tank development project transferred main parts production technologies andlicensesto Otokar, a main designer of Altay, as well as tank gun subcontractorMechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation(MKE) and armor package subcontractorRoketsanfrom January 2009 to 2014. Hyundai Rotem provided design assistance and technology transfer to Otokar to develop Altay tank systems, Hyundai WIA transferred tank gun production technology to MKE, and Samyang Comtech transferred Configuration design technology for armor plate, Material Processing Technology and Manufacturing & Maintenance Technology to Roketsan. In October 2014, it was reported that less than 50% of Altay's technologies were being developed based on K2's technology, and this percentage increased to 60% after Altay PV (Pilot Vehicle) was developed.[123][124][125][126]

ADD and South Korean ammunition manufacturer Poongsan Corporation provided ballistics testing equipment and technical advice to Turkey's National Ballistic Protection Center (now Roketsan Ballistic Protection Center), and conducted Altay's bulletproof performance test with Samyang Comtech.[24][125][127]Later, with design assistance from ADD and Hyundai Rotem, the last prototypes, PV1 and PV2, were developed in July 2015, and the project was officially completed in 2016.

On 10 March 2021,BMC,the main contractor responsible for the production of Altay tanks, decided to import engines and transmissions from South Korea to resolve the problem of production delays.[128]On 22 October 2021, seven months after BMC decided to import Korean powerpacks, South Korea's DAPA approved the export of Hyundai Doosan Infracore (Now HD Hyundai Infracore) DV27K engines and SNT Dynamics EST15K transmissions to Turkey.[129]Since then, in August 2022, the durability test of the powerpack combined with the DV27K engine and EST15K transmission imported from South Korea is underway, and if the durability test succeeds, the first 250 Altay will be produced by integrating the Korean powerpack.[130]

Poland[edit]

K2GF (Gap Filler)

In January 2020,Polandannounced negotiations with Hyundai Rotem for license production of the K2 Black Panther for thePolish Army.[131][132]

On 13 June 2022, thePolish Ministry of Defenceannounced that it had signed amemorandum of understanding(MoU) to purchase at least 180 K2 tanks for the Polish military. The 180 tanks will be produced by Hyundai Rotem inSouth Koreastarting in 2022 and then supplied to thePolish Army.[133][134]

On 27 July 2022, thePolish Armaments Group(PGZ) and Hyundai Rotem signed aframework agreementto supply 180 K2s and 820 K2PLs. The contract includes rapid arms supply and extensive technology transfer fromSouth Korea.180 K2s will be produced inSouth Koreaand delivered toPolandstarting in 2022 and 820 K2PLs will be produced inPolandunder license starting in 2026.[115][116][117][118]

On 26 August 2022, the firstexecutive agreementworth $3.37 billion was signed to procure 180 K2s inMorąg,northern Poland. The contract includes training programs, logistics packages, explosive reactive armor packages, 500,000 120 mm, 4.3 million7.62 mmand12.7 mmmachine gunammunitionfor the K2.[135]Soldiers of the16th Mechanised Divisionof the Polish Army were sent to South Korea in October 2022 to participate in the training program. The 180 K2 tanks, which will be delivered from 2022 to 2025, will be sequentially deployed to the 20th Mechanised Brigade, 15th Mechanised Brigade and 9th Armoured Cavalry Brigade, which are brigade-class units belonging to the 16th Mechanised Division.[109][136][137][138]

On 7 September 2022, PGZ and Hyundai Rotem signed apartnership agreementto develop and produce tanks, armored vehicles and ground unmanned systems. The contract includes joint cooperation in building manufacturing facilities in Poland for the production and maintenance of 1000 K2s and the production of K3 next-generation main battle tanks. In addition, the facility to be built inPolandwill be used as a hub inEuropefor the sale and maintenance of Hyundai Rotem's tanks and armored vehicles.[139]

K2 at Radom, Poland (2023)

On 5 December 2022, the first 10 K2s arrived at the port ofGdyniainPolandon board the BBC Pearl, just six months following the signing of the agreement.[110][111]They were delivered to the 20th Mechanised Brigade of the 16th Mechanised Division on 9 December 2022.[112][113]

On 31 March 2023, thePolish Ministry of Defensesigned afoundational agreementwith Hyundai Rotem for aconsortiumto produce K2PL inPoznań.The agreement included a supply of K2PL, which was redesigned to meet the Polish military's requirements, and a support vehicle based on the K2PL's platform.[140]

On March 11, 2024, it was reported that an additional batch of three K2 Black Panther main battle tanks (MBTs) was delivered toGdynia,Poland,bringing the total number of K2 tanks in thePolish Armyto 31.[141]In light of the escalating threat fromRussia,it is believed that Poland has requested the swift delivery of the K2 tanks as soon as they are prepared. Hyundai Rotem, the manufacturer, appears to have the capacity to meet this expedited schedule.

On March 17, 2024, it was announced that 4 K2 tanks arrived in the port, and on March 19, another 11 Black Panthers arrived.[142]

Failed bids[edit]

Norway[edit]

TheNorwegian Armyconsidered the K2 (assigned as the K2NO) in a 2020 bid against the Leopard 2A7 and intended to make a decision in late 2022.[143]The government ultimately selected the Leopard 2A7, citing a close and established relationship with the German manufacturer as well as similar tanks being used by other European countries as deciding factors. The prime minister also erroneously cited Poland as a future Leopard 2 operator as part of the reason for the government's choice.[144]Leopard tanks will take some time to arrive in Norway – the first are scheduled to be delivered by 2026 and should be operational by 2031.[145]However, Norway recently announced that it would be putting the Black Panther back to determine its future battle tank.[146]

Prototypes and variants[edit]

Prototypes[edit]

  • XK2 MTR (Mobility Test Rig):Experimental vehicle for mobility tests, with main gun and electronic equipment removed from the turret. Only one was produced.
  • XK2 FTR (Firepower Test Rig):Experimental vehicle for fire control, combat control, and low temperature operation tests. Like MTR, only one was produced for the experiment.
  • XK2 PV (Pilot Vehicle):Experimental vehicle for the technical demonstration test of three XK2s, these vehicles were also called Pilot Vehicles and numbered PV1 through PV3. The main test objectives of these vehicles were endurance tests, developer tests, operator tests, andintegrated logistics supporttests.
    • XK2:As the last prototype developed based on theXK2 PVreleased on 2 March 2007, the development was officially completed in September 2008 after theoperational testof theRepublic of Korea Army.

Variants[edit]

  • K2:Mass production variant with explosive reactive armor added to the sides of the turret and chassis. Deployed to theRepublic of Korea Armystarting 1 July 2014.
    • K2 PIP (Product Improvement Program):Improved armor package with ultra-high hardness and high-hardness steel, upgrading of the semi-active in-arm suspension unit (ISU) to an active in-arm suspension unit, integration of a high-resolution terrain-scanning system to the vehicle's suspension system. This allows the vehicle to scan nearby terrain up to 50 meters away in all directions and calculate the optimal position of the enemy in order to improve vehicle handling over rough terrain. The improvement also might include hard-killactive protection systemandnon-explosive reactive armor.
  • Altay:Export vehicle based on the K2 Black Panther, developed byOtokarwith design and technology assistance from Hyundai Rotem. It was redesigned based on K2's system, aMKEKmade 120 mm tank gun and composite longer hull length, addition of another, seventh pair of road wheels as well asROKETSANmadecomposite armourand additionalreactive armourof the turret and hull. All electronics areASELSANmade systems such as VOLKAN IIfire control system,AKKORactive protection system,SARPremote controlled weapon station,and TLUS laser warning system. Additionally, unlike the K2, the non-active in-arm suspension unit and isolated shell housing protection is adopted whilst there is a lack of automatic feeding magazine system forautoloadermechanisms inside the turret. The first batch of 250 units will be produced with Korean powerpacks.[120][121][122][123][130]
  • K2EX:Export variant presented at ADEX 2023. It incorporates an active protection system, called KAPS-2, a variant of the Trophy active protection system, a battlefield situational awareness device that provides 360° vision and a RWCS that incorporates an anti-drone gun. A notable feature of this variant is the incorporation of a modification that allows the ammunition to operate with information injection. This innovation allows the crew to control both the timing and shape of munition explosions, improving the adaptability of combat strategies. The side armor of the turret and chassis was also improved.[147][148][149][150][151][152]
  • K2PL:Proposed licensed version of K2 for thePolish Armed Forcesas a replacement for their aging fleet ofT-72andPT-91tanks currently in service.[131]The K2PL retains most of the K2's features, such as the CN08 120 mmgun barrel,bustle type autoloader, pulse-doppler radar and In-arm suspension unit (ISU), 6 road wheels, but it differs from the original version, among others:Trophyhard-kill APS,composite add-on armor,a12.7mm CROWS,and add-onexplosive reactive armor,ammunition storage isolated from the crew, additional armor of the turret and hull by adding detachable panels of layered armor, and in the case of the drive compartment, a mesh and bar armor, designed to protect against HEAT projectiles.[citation needed]Under theframework agreementbetween PGZ and Hyundai Rotem on the supply of K2 and K2PL, 820 K2PLs will be produced in Poland under license from 2026.[115][116][117][118][153][154][155][156]
  • K2ME:Proposed licensed version of K2 for export tomiddle easterncountries. It has an upgraded armor package and 7 road wheels, but unlike the K2, it lacks a Laser Warning Receiver (LWR) on the front of the turret.[157]
  • K2NO:Proposed licensed version of K2 for theNorwegian Armed Forcesas a replacement for their aging fleet ofLeopard 2A4.It is armed with aTrophyhard-kill APS,composite add-on armor,a12.7mm CROWS,and add-onexplosive reactive armor.In addition, preheating devices, battery heating packs, and electric air blow systems have been added to prevent the engine from turning off in Norway's cryogenic environment. The first few tanks were to be shipped fromSouth Koreawhile the rest were to be built locally. The K2NO was competing against theLeopard 2A7in tank trials.[158]On February 3, 2023, a decision was made to move forward with the 2A7.
  • K2 ARV (Armored Recovery Vehicle):Armored recovery vehiclebased on the chassis of the K2 with seven road wheels.[159]
  • K2 CEV (Combat Engineer Vehicle):Combat engineer vehiclebased on the chassis of the K2 with seven road wheels.[160]

Operators[edit]

A map of operators of the K2 Black Panther or its variants

Current operators[edit]

Poland
  • Polish Land Forces– On 27 July 2022, PGZ and Hyundai Rotem signed aframework agreementto supply 180K2s and 820K2PLs. According to the agreement, 180 K2s will be supplied from South Korea from 2022, and 820 K2PLs will be produced in Poland from 2026. A total of 1,000 tanks will be delivered to Polish Land Forces.[115][116][117][118]On 26 August 2022 theexecutive agreementwas signed to procure K2. A total of 180 K2s will be delivered to the 16th Mechanised Division from 2022 to 2025.[136][137][138]
    • 16th Mechanised Division– A total of 180 K2s. Received 46 K2s as of 19 March 2024.[161]
      • 9th Armoured Cavalry Brigade
      • 15th Mechanised Brigade
      • 20th Mechanised Brigade: 46 K2s
South Korea
Turkey

Potential operators[edit]

Romania— According to local media, Bucharest wants to buy an additional 300 main battle tanks and is looking at the K2 Black Panther tank as its main option.[163]Hyundai Rotem's K2 Black Panther tank underwent live-fire testing at the Smârdan training range in Romania in May 2024.[164]A month prior, a senior Korean military official stated that "The schedule for the first local live-fire test of Hyundai Rotem's K2 Black Panther tank in Romania has been confirmed. The test, which will take place from May 10 to 16, will be attended by government officials and Hyundai Rotem personnel from both countries." The local live-fire test of tracked equipment is essentially the last stage before signing a contract to evaluate the weapon's performance. Experts believe that the results of this test will specify the scale and timing of the K2 tank contract, including the amount and the number of units. An industry insider explained, 'Hyundai Rotem's target volume for the K2 tank order in Romania is about 500 units.'[165]

Egypt— Egypt has revealed that it was seeking to procure the Black Panther as trade between the two nations has increased in recent years.[146]

Norway— Norway announced that it would be putting the Black Panther back against the German-made Leopard MBT in tests to determine its future battle tank.[146]

Slovakia— In 2021, Slovakia discussed a potential K2 buy at the ministerial level.[166]

Summary[edit]

Operators
(Jan 2024) 		Orders Acquisition Losses In service Note
K2 Altay K2 PIP
South KoreaRepublic of Korea ArmyandMarine Corps K2
260
K2 PIP
150 		206
(+54) 		— (+150) — 206
0 		The K2 tanks were first put into service in June 2014. In Lot 1, 100 K2 tanks were delivered, followed by 106 K2 tanks in Lot 2. An additional 54 K2 tanks were ordered in Lot 3, with delivery and service expected by 2024. Lastly, 150 K2 PIP tanks were ordered in Lot 4, slated for service by 2028.
TurkeyTurkish Land Forces Altay T1
40
Altay T2
210
Altay T3
1 		— 5
(+35)
2
(+208)
0
(+1) 		— — 5
2
0 		Put into service in June 2023.[167]5 Phase I and 2 Phase 2s were delivered.
PolandPolish Land Forces K2GF
180
K2PL
820 		46
(+134)
(-180) 		— (+320)
(+500)
(+180) 		— 46
0 		The contract, signed in July 2022, saw the first 10 K2 tanks arriving in December 2022. Given the security concerns, the remaining 180 K2 tanks are scheduled for sequential delivery as soon as they are ready between 2022 and 2025, with plans for later upgrading them to the K2PL.[168]56 by 2024 and 96 by 2025.[169]Additionally, 820 K2PL tanks are set to be produced in Poland starting from 2026 onwards.[168]
In service Total orders
1,661 		237 7 0 — 259
Total acquired: 259
To be manufactured: 1,402

Legend of the colored numbers in the table:

Systems assembled and produced in South Korea
Systems assembled or produced outside of South Korea
2nd hand sold/transferred [ - ] and bought/received [ + ]
System upgraded, one variant to the other [ - ] / [ + ]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^In Korea, this soft-kill active protection system is commonly called multi-region screening smoke grenade (다영역차장 연막유탄).
  2. ^The military says it will conditionally approve the supply of the domestic transmission if it passes 320 hours of endurance tests and 3,200 kilometers of driving tests organized by the government.

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