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Kathoey

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"Lady Boy" redirects here. For the 1994 J-pop song, seeLady Boy (song).
For the 2019 Burmese film, seeLadyBoy (film).

Kathoey
Kathoeys on the stage of a cabaret show in Pattaya
Kathoeys on the stage of a cabaret show inPattaya
Pronunciation[kàtʰɤːj]
MeaningTrans women,intersex,androgynouspeople,effeminategay men
ClassificationGender identity
Other terms
SynonymsLadyboy,phuying praphet song,phet thi sam,sao praphet song
Associated termsBakla,Khanith,Kothi,Hijra,Two-spirit,Trans woman,Akava'ine
Demographics
Frequencyup to 0.6%AMAB(2011 estimate)
Regions with significant populations
Cambodia,Laos,Thailand
Legal information
RecognitionYes, limited
ProtectionNone
Part ofa serieson
Transgender topics
Gender identities
Health carepractices
Rights andlegal status
Society and culture
Events and awareness
Culture
Theory and concepts
By country
Rights
History
See also
Category
Nong Tumis perhaps the most internationally recognisedkathoeyfor her portrayal in the filmBeautiful Boxer.

Kathoeyorkatoey(Khmer:ខ្ទើយ;khtəəy,Lao:ກະເທີຍ;ka thœ̄i,Thai:กะเทย;RTGS:kathoei;Thai pronunciation:[kàtʰɤːj]) is an identity used by some people inCambodia,Laos,andThailand,whose identities in English may be best described astransgender womenin some cases, oreffeminategay menin other cases. These people are not traditionally transgender, but are seen as a third sex, being one body containing two souls. Transgender women in Thailand mostly use terms other thankathoeywhen referring to themselves, such asphuying(Thai:ผู้หญิง,'woman'). A significant number ofThai peopleperceivekathoeyas belonging to a separate sex, including some transgender women themselves.[1]

In the face of the many sociopolitical obstacles thatkathoeysnavigate in Thailand,kathoeyactivism has led to constitutional protection from unjust gender discrimination as of January 2015, but a separatethird gendercategory has not yet been legally recognized.[2]

History[edit]

According to historical accounts, the presence of androgynous people seeking sexual exchanges dates back over 700 years. This is mentioned in an account by a Chinese observer namedZhou Daguanwho visited theAngkor Watarea ofCambodiain 1296–1297. He observed that there were many "two-shaped persons" who tried to lure Chinese men with the promise of sumptuous gifts.[3][4]The term "kathoey" is used to refer to transgender women or the "third sex". Its usage dates back to a 19th-century interpretation of theChbab Srey,a Cambodian text written around 1800. The text refers to "malicious" women being punished in the "four hells" and being reincarnated askathoey.[5]

Terminology[edit]

A study of 195 Thai transgender women found that most of the participants referred to themselves asphuying(ผู้หญิง'women'), with a minority referring to themselves asphuying praphet song('second kind of woman') and very few referring to themselves askathoey.[6]Related phrases includephet thi sam(เพศที่สาม,'third sex'), andsao praphet songorphu ying praphet song(สาวประเภทสอง,ผู้หญิงประเภทสอง—both meaning 'second-type female'). The wordkathoeyis ofKhmerខ្ទើយkhteuy.[7]It is most often rendered asladyboyin English conversation, an expression that has become popular acrossSoutheast Asia.[citation needed]

General description[edit]

Althoughkathoeyis often translated as 'transgender woman' in English, this term is not correct in Thailand. As well as transgender people, the term can refer togay men,and was originally used to refer tointersexpeople.[7]Before the 1960s, the use ofkathoeyincluded anyone who deviated from the dominant sexual norms.[8]Because of this confusion in translation, theEnglishtranslation ofkathoeyis usually 'ladyboy' (or variants of the term).

Use of the termkathoeysuggests that the personself-identifies as a type of male,in contrast tosao praphet song(which, like "trans woman", suggests a "female" (sao) identity), and in contrast tophet thi sam('third sex'). The termphu ying praphetsong,which can be translated as 'second-type female', is also used to refer tokathoey.[9]: 146 Australian scholar of sexual politics in ThailandPeter Jacksonclaims that the termkathoeywas used in antiquity to refer tointersexpeople, and that the connotation changed in the mid-20th century to covercross-dressingmales.[10]Kathoeybecame an iconic symbol of modern Thai culture.[11]The term can refer to males who exhibit varying degrees of femininity. Many dress as women and undergo "feminising" medical procedures such asbreast implants,hormones,siliconeinjections, orAdam's apple reductions.Others may wear make-up and use femininepronouns,but dress as men, and are closer to the Western category ofeffeminategay man than transgender.

The termkathoeymay be considered pejorative, especially in the formkathoey-saloey.It has a meaning similar to the English language 'fairy' or 'queen'.[12]Kathoeycan also be seen as a derogatory word for those who are gay.[13]

Religion[edit]

In Buddhism there are a variety of interpretations on how to relate toKathoeyand Transgender people. Some within theTheravadaschoolof Buddhism see being akathoeyas the result of karmic punishment for previous lifetimes.[14]Bunmi, aThai Buddhistauthor, believes that homosexuality stems from "lower level spirits" (phi-sang-thewada), a factor that is influenced by one's past life.[7]Some Buddhists viewkathoeysas persons born with a disability as a consequence of past sins.[7][dubious–discuss]Using the notion ofkarma,some Thais believe that being akathoeyis the result of transgressions inpast lives,concluding thatkathoeydeserve pity rather than blame.[15]Others, however, believe thatkathoeysshould rectify their past life transgressions.[16]This is done throughmerit-makingsuch as "making donations to a temple or by ordaining as monks".[16]While other Buddhists believe that the Buddha was never hostile to LGBT people and therefore that seeing being LGBT as a karmic punishment is a mistaken interpretation.[17]

In northern Thailand,Kathoey,women, and gay men are considered to have soft souls and are therefore easily frightened and highly susceptible to possession.[18]These three groups are heavily represented inspirit summoningsince people without soft souls are considered immune to possession.[18]Despite this,Kathoeybeing a large proportion of the spirit medium population is a modern phenomenon since there is little evidence thatKathoeywere associated with religious practice and were banned from religious ceremony before the modern period.[19]In rural areas in north Thailand,Kathoeyhave taken on jobs as spirit mediums where they become known asKathoey maa-khii.[20]Spirit mediumship providesKathoeywith a source of income as well as a support network.[21]

During the festival of the nine gods in southern Thailand,Kathoeyparticipate as spiritual mediums of the godKaun Im.[22]The southern Thailand tradition of the spirit mediumNoradance has traditionally been a primarily male performance.[23]However, women andKathoeyhave become an increasingly large proportion of the performers, with a majority male performers in 2014 being either gay men orKathoey.[24]

Requirements to confirm eligibility for gender-affirming surgery[edit]

Main article:LGBT rights in Thailand
See also:LGBT rights in CambodiaandLGBT rights in Laos

In Thai cities such as Bangkok, there are currently two to threegender-affirming surgery(GAS) operations per week, more than 3,500 over the past thirty years.[25]With the massive increase in GASs, there has also been an increase in prerequisites, measures that must be taken in order to be eligible for the operation. Patients must be at least 18 years old with permission from parents if under 20 years old.[26]One must provide evidence of diagnosis ofgender dysphoriafrom a psychologist or psychiatrist. Before going through gender reassignment surgery, one must be on hormones/antiandrogens for at least one year.[26]Patients must have a note from the psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. Two months prior to the surgery, patients are required to see a psychiatrist in Thailand to confirm eligibility for gender-affirming surgery.

Social context[edit]

Kathoeysare more visible and more accepted in Thai culture than transgender people are in other countries in the world. Several popular Thai models, singers, and movie stars arekathoeys,and Thai newspapers often printphotographsof the winners of female andkathoeybeauty contests side by side. The phenomenon is not restricted to urban areas; there arekathoeysin most villages, andkathoeybeauty contests are commonly held as part of local fairs.[citation needed]

A common stereotype is that older, well-offkathoeyprovide financial supporttoyoung menwith whom they are in romantic relationships.[27]

Kathoeyscurrently face many social and legal impediments. Families (and especially fathers) are typically disappointed if a child becomes akathoey,andkathoeysoften have to face the prospect of disclosing their birth sex. However,kathoeygenerally have greater acceptance in Thailand than most other East Asian countries.[28]Problems can also arise in regards to access to amenities and gender allocation.

Employment[edit]

Manykathoeywork in predominately female occupations, such as in shops, restaurants, andbeauty salons,but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers).[29]Discrimination in employment is rampant as many perceivekathoeysas having mental problems and refuse to hire them.[30]In addition, the difficulty forKathoeyto change their gender marker on official documentation makes finding employment harder.[31][32]For these reasons, manykathoeysare only able to find work in sex and entertainment industries.[30]These sorts of jobs include tourist centers, cabarets, andsex work.[30]Kathoeyswho work in the tourism sector must conform to a physical image that is preferred by tourists.[30]Kathoeyswho obtain jobs in the civil service sector are required to wear uniforms coinciding with their assigned sex of male.[33]In 2011, The Thai airline "PC Air" began hiringKathoeyas flight attendants.[34][35]

In rural areas in northern Thailand, somekathoeyhave acquired jobs picking fruit from trees.[36]According to rural traditions men and women perform separate roles in the process of collecting fruit. Men climb trees and while women collect fruit in baskets below. However,kathoeyare allowed to perform both roles.[37]Kathoeyin Rural Areas in northern Thailand have begun acquiring jobs as spirit mediums as well.[38]

Education[edit]

Many schools teach students that being transgender is wrong and a form of sexual deviancy.[16]Thai schools utilize gendered uniforms as well.[39]In 2015,Bangkok Universityrevised its uniform guidelines to allow transgender students to wear the uniform of their preferred gender, however, many other institutions still force transgender students to wear the uniform that matches their assigned sex.[39]SeveralKathoeyand transgender women choose which schools to attend based mainly on the ability to wear the gendered school uniform they prefer.[40]Somekathoeyreport facing violence and discrimination from both their classmates and their teachers at all levels of schooling due to their beingkathoey.[41]This has led to some dropping out or changing schools.[42]

Political context[edit]

Thailand's 2015 Gender Equality Act is currently the strongest legal tool for advocating for transgender rights.[33]It protects those who are "of a different appearance from his/her own sex by birth" from unfair gender discrimination.[39]Prior to the creation of the 2016 Thai constitution, people believed that anti-discrimination terms would be set for a new category called 'third gender'.[39]This term, however, was missing from the new constitution and no protections for transgender people were specifically outlined.[39]Instead, the constitution prohibited "unjust discrimination" based on differences in sex.[39]

Identification documents[edit]

Legal recognition ofkathoeys and transgender people is nonexistent in Thailand: even if a transgender person has had sex reassignment surgery, they are not allowed to change their legal sex on theiridentification documents.[33]Identification documents are particularly important for daily life in Thailand as they facilitate communication with businesses, bureaucratic agencies (i.e., signing up for educational courses or medical care), law enforcement, etc.[33]The primary identification form used in Thailand isThe Thai National Identification Card,which is used for many important processes such as opening a bank account.[33]The vast majority of transgender people are unable to change these documents to reflect their chosen gender, and those who are allowed must uphold strict standards.[43]Transgender individuals are often accused of falsifying documents and are forced to show their identification documents.[33]This threatens their safety and results in their exclusion from various institutions like education or housing.[33]Impeded by these identity cards on a daily basis, transgender people are "outed" by society.[44]

The criminal justice sector relies on identification cards when deciding where to detain individuals.[33]This means thatkathoeysare detained alongside men.[33]By law, women are not allowed to be detained alongside men, and sincekathoeysare not legally classified as women, they reside in the male section in prison.[33]Within prison,kathoeysare forced to cut their hair and abide by strict rules governing gender expression.[33]Additionally, they are denied access tohormonesand other "transition-related health care".[33]

Military draft[edit]

Transgender individuals were automatically exempted from compulsory military service in Thailand.Kathoeyswere deemed to suffer from "mental illness" or "permanent mental disorder".[45]These mental disorders were required to appear on their military service documents, which are accessible to future employers. In 2006, the ThaiNational Human Rights Commission(NHRC) overturned the use of discriminatory phraseology in Thailand's military service exemption documents.[45]With Thai law banning citizens from changing their sex on their identification documents, everyone under the male category must attend a "lottery day" where they are randomly selected to enlist in the army for two years. In March 2008, the military added a "third category" for transgender people that dismissed them from service due to "illness that cannot be cured within 30 days".[46]In 2012, the Administrative Court ruled that the Military and Defense needed to revise the reasoning for their exemption ofkathoeysfrom the military.[33]As such,kathoeysare now exempt from the military under the reasoning that their "gender does not match their sex at birth".[33]

Performance[edit]

Representation in cinema[edit]

Kathoeysbegan to gain prominence in thecinema of Thailandduring the late-1980s.[47]The depiction at first was negative by showingkathoeyssuffering bad karma, suicide, and abandoned by straight lovers.[47]Independent and experimental films contributed to defying sexual norms in gay cinema in the 1990s.[48]The 2000 filmThe Iron Ladies,directed byYongyoot Thongkongtoon,depicted a positive portrayal of an almost entirelykathoeyvolleyball team by displaying their confidence.[47]The rising middle-class in Bangkok and vernacular queer culture made the mainstream portrayal ofkathoeysmore popular on television and in art house cinemas.[49]

Miss Tiffany's Universe[edit]

Feminine beauty in Thailand allowed transgender people to have their own platform where they are able to challenge stereotypes and claim cultural recognition.[50]Miss Tiffany's Universeis a beauty contest that is opened to all transgender women. Beginning in 1998, the pageant takes place every May in Pattaya, Thailand. With over 100 applicants, the pageant is considered to be one of the most popular transgender pageants in the world. Through beauty pageants, Thailand has been able to promote the country's cosmetic surgery industry, which has had a massive increase inmedical tourismforsex reassignment surgery.According to the Miss Tiffany's Universe website, the live broadcast attracts record of fifteen million viewers. The winner of the pageant receives a tiara, sash, car, and a grand prize of 100,000baht(US$3,000), equivalent to an annual wage for a Thai factory worker.[51]The assistant manager director, Alisa Phanthusak, stated that the pageant wantskathoeysto be visible and to treat them as normal.[2]It is the biggest annual event inPattaya.[52]

Transgender beauty contests are found in the countryside at village fairs or festivals.[7]All-male revues are common in gay bars inBangkokand as drag shows in the tourist resort ofPattaya.[7]

Recent developments[edit]

Kathoeyworking in a go-go bar inBangkok'sNana Plazaentertainment area

In 1993, Thailand's teacher training colleges implemented a semi-formal ban on allowing homosexual (which includedkathoey) students enrolling in courses leading to qualification for positions in kindergartens and primary schools. In January 1997, theRajabhat Institutes(the governing body of the colleges) announced it would formalize the ban, which would extend to all campuses at the start of the 1997 academic year. The ban was quietly rescinded later in the year, following the replacement of the Minister of Education.[9]: xv–xiv 

In 1996, a volleyball team composed mostly of gays andkathoeys,known asThe Iron Ladies(Thai:สตรีเหล็ก,satree lek), laterportrayed in two Thai movies,won the Thai national championship. The Thai government, concerned with the country's image, barred two of thekathoeysfrom joining the national team and competing internationally.

Among the most famouskathoeysin Thailand isNong Tum,a former championThai boxerwho emerged into the public eye in 1998. She would present in a feminine manner and had commenced hormone therapy while still a popular boxer; she would enter the ring with long hair and make-up, occasionally kissing a defeated opponent. She announced her retirement from professional bo xing in 1999 – undergoing gender reassignment surgery, while continuing to work as a coach, and taking up acting and modeling. She returned to bo xing in 2006.

In 2004, the Chiang Mai Technology School allocated a separate restroom forkathoeys,with an intertwined male and female symbol on the door. The school's fifteenkathoeystudents were required to wear male clothing at school but were allowed to sport feminine hairdos. The restroom featured four stalls, but no urinals.[53]

Following the2006 Thai coup d'état,kathoeysare hoping for a new third sex to be added to passports and other official documents in a proposed new constitution.[54]In 2007, legislative efforts have begun to allowkathoeysto change their legal sex if they have undergone gender reassignment surgery; this latter restriction was controversially discussed in the community.[55]

Bell Nuntita,a contestant of theThailand's Got TalentTV show, became aYouTubehit when she first performed singing as a girl and then switched to a masculine voice.[56]

It is estimated that as many as six in every thousand native males later present themselves as transgender women orphu ying kham phet.[11]

Advocacy[edit]

Activism[edit]

Thai activists have mobilized for over two decades to secure sexual diversity rights.[57]Beauty pageant winnerYollada Suanyot,known as Nok, founded the Trans Female Association of Thailand on the basis of changing sex designation on identification cards for post-operative transgender women.[57]Nok promoted the termphuying kham-phetinstead ofkathoeybut was controversial because of its connotation with gender identity disorder.[57]The goal of the Thai Transgender Alliance is to delistgender dysphoriafrom international psychological diagnostic criteria. The Alliance uses the termkathoeyto advocate for transgender identity.[57]A common protest sign during sexual rights marches isKathoey mai chai rok-jitmeaning "Kathoey are not mentally ill".[57]

Activism in Thailand is discouraged if it interferes with official policy.[58]In January 2006, the Thai Network of People Living WithHIV/AIDShad their offices raided after demonstrations against Thai-US foreign trade agreements.[58]Under the Thai Constitution of 1997, the right to be free of discrimination based on health conditions helped to minimize the stigma against communities living with HIV/AIDS.[58]In most cases, governments and their agencies fail to protect transgender people against these exclusions.[11]There is a lack of HIV/AIDS services for specifically transgender people, and feminizing hormones largely go without any medical monitoring.[11]

Trans prejudice has produced discriminatory behaviors that have led to the exclusion of transgender people from economic and social activity.[59]Worldwide, transgender people face discrimination amongst family members, in religious and educational settings, and the workplace.[11]Accepted mainly in fashion-related jobs or show business, transgender people are discriminated against in the job market and have limited job opportunities.[57]Kathoeyshave also experienced ridicule from coworkers and tend to have lower salaries.[13]Long-term unemployment reduces the chances of contributing to welfare for the family and lowers self-esteem, causing a higher likelihood of prostitution in specialized bars.[11]"Ladyboy" bars also can provide a sense of community and reinforces a female sense of identity forkathoeys.[11]Harassment from the police is evident especially forkathoeyswho work on the streets.[11]Kathoeysmay be rejected in official contexts being denied entry or services.[13]

Based on a study byAIDS Careparticipants who identified as a girl orkathoeyat an early age were more likely to be exposed to prejudice or violence from men in their families.[60]Kathoeysare more subjected to sexual attacks from men than are other homosexuals.[9]

Anjareeis one of Thailand's gay feminist organizations, established in mid-1986 by women's right activists.[61]The organization advocated wider public understanding of homosexuality based on the principles of human rights. The first public campaign opposing sexual irregularity was launched in 1996.[62]

Social spaces are often limited forkathoeyseven if Thai society does not actively persecute them.[13]Indigenous Thai cultural traditions have given a social space for sexual minorities.[11]In January 2015, the Thai government announced it would recognize the third sex in its constitution in order to ensure all sexes be treated equally under the law.[2]

In popular culture[edit]

The first all-kathoeymusic group in Thailand was formed in 2006. It is named "Venus Flytrap"and was selected and promoted bySony BMGMusic Entertainment.[63]"The Lady Boys of Bangkok" is akathoeyrevuethat has been performed in the UK since 1998, touring the country in both theatres and the famous "Sabai Pavilion"[64]for nine months each year.

Ladyboys,also a popular term used in Thailand when referring to transgender women, was the title of a popular documentary inthe United Kingdom,where it was aired onChannel 4TV in 1992 and was directed byJeremy Marre.Marre aimed to portray the life of two adolescentkathoeysliving in rural Thailand, as they strove to land a job at a cabaret revue inPattaya.

The German-Swedish bandLindemannwrote the song "Ladyboy", on their first studio albumSkills in Pills,about a man's preference forkathoeys.

In series 1, episode 3 ofBritish sitcomI'm Alan Partridge,theprotagonistAlan Partridgefrequently mentions ladyboys, seemingly expressing a sexual interest in them.[citation needed]

Thaikathoeystyle and fashion has largely borrowed from Korean popular culture.[65]

"Uncle Go Paknam"[edit]

"Uncle Go Paknam", created by Pratchaya Phanthathorn, is a popular queer advice column that first appeared in 1975 in a magazine titledPlaek,meaning 'strange'.[8]Through letters and responses it became an outlet to express the desires and necessities of the queer community in Thailand.[8]The magazine achieved national popularity because of its bizarre and often gay content.[8]It portrayed positive accounts ofkathoeys and men called "sharks" to view transgender people as legitimate or even preferred sexual partners and started a more accepting public discourse in Thailand.[8]Under the pen name of Phan Thathron he wrote the column "Girls to the Power of 2" that included profiles ofkathoeys in a glamorous or erotic pose.[8]"Girls to the Power of 2" were the first accounts ofkathoeylives based on interviews that allowed their voices to be published in the mainstream press of Thailand.[8]The heterosexual public became more inclined to read about transgender communities that were previously given negative press in Thai newspapers.[8]Go Paknam's philosophy was "kathoeys are good (for men)."[8]

Inside Thailand's Third Gender[edit]

A documentary entitledInside Thailand's Third Genderexamines the lives ofkathoeysin Thailand and features interviews with various transgender women, the obstacles these people face with their family and lovers, but moreover on a larger societal aspect where they feel ostracized by the religious Thai culture. Following contestants participating in one of the largest transgender beauty pageants, known asMiss Tiffany's Universe,the film not only illustrates the process and competition that takes place during the beauty pageant, but also highlights the systems of oppression that take place to target the transgender community in Thailand.[citation needed]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Winter, Sam (2003). Research and discussion paper:Language and identity in transgender: gender wars and the case of the Thai kathoey.Paper presented at the Hawaii conference on Social Sciences, Waikiki, June 2003.Article onlineArchived29 March 2012 at theWayback Machine.
  2. ^abcYeung, Isobel. "Trans in Thailand (Part 1)."VICE Video.N.p., n.d. Web. 30 April 2017.
  3. ^"Thật thịt khô phong thổ nhớ: Thật thịt khô phong thổ nhớ - Chinese Text Project".ctext.org.Retrieved17 April2024.
  4. ^BEING LGBT IN ASIA: CAMBODIA COUNTRY REPORT(PDF),p. 16
  5. ^Hoefinger, H.; Srun, S. (2017).""At-Risk" or "Socially Deviant"? Conflicting Narratives and Grassroots Organizing of Sex/Entertainment Workers and LGBT Communities in Cambodia ".Social Sciences.6(3): 5.doi:10.3390/socsci6030093.S2CID58920413.According to an account written by a Chinese observer named Daguan who visited the Angkor Wat area of Cambodia in 1296–1297, the presence of young Khmer men dressed in women's clothing while seeking sexual exchanges date back over 700 years. He recounted, "in this country there are many catamites [pubescent boys in pederast relationships] who hang around everyday in the market, in groups of ten or more. They are always trying to lure Chinese men in return for sumptuous gifts" (Daguan 2007). In a recent interpretation of the Cbpab Srei written c. 1800, there is a reference in lines 184–186 of "malicious" women suffering punishment from the "four hells" as being reincarnated as kathoey
  6. ^Kijratanakosonhttps, Nattawaj (7 July 2023). "The discursive representation of male sex workers in Thai newspapers".Journalism.24(7) – via SageJournals.
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  8. ^abcdefghiJackson, Peter A.First Queer Voices from Thailand: Uncle Go's Advice Columns for Gays, Lesbians and Kathoeys.Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2016. Print.
  9. ^abcJackson, Peter(1999).Lady Boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys: Male and Female Homosexualities in Contemporary Thailand.Haworth Press.ISBN978-0-7890-0656-1.
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  11. ^abcdefghiWinter, Sam. Queer Bangkok: Twenty-first Century Markets, Media, and Rights. Aberdeen, Hong Kong: Hong Kong U Press, 2011
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  13. ^abcdOjanen, Timo T. (2009). "Sexual/gender minorities in Thailand: Identities, challenges, and voluntary-sector counseling".Sexuality Research and Social Policy.6(2): 4–34.doi:10.1525/srsp.2009.6.2.4.S2CID143531913.
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  15. ^Totman, Richard (2003).The Third Sex: Kathoey: Thailand's Ladyboys.London: Souvenir Press. p.57.ISBN978-0-285-63668-2.
  16. ^abc"APA PsycNet".content.apa.org.doi:10.1037/0000159-010.S2CID210572667.Retrieved5 November2021.
  17. ^Chandran, Rina (21 August 2020).""'LGBT people are also humans': Thai Buddhist monk backs equality "".Reuters.
  18. ^abJackson, Peter (2022).Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond.Copenhagen: Nais Press. p. 62.ISBN9788776943073.
  19. ^Jackson, Peter (2022).Deities and Divas. Queer Ritual specialists in Myanmar, Thailand and Beyond.Copenhagen: Nais Press. p. 76.ISBN9788776943073.
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  29. ^Winter S, Udomsak N (2002).Male, Female and Transgender: Stereotypes and Self in ThailandArchived28 February 2007 at theWayback Machine.International Journal of Transgenderism.6,1
  30. ^abcdTan, Qian Hui (2014)."Orientalist obsessions: fabricating hyper-reality and performing hyper-femininity in Thailand's kathoey tourism".Annals of Leisure Research.17(2): 145–160.doi:10.1080/11745398.2014.906312.ISSN1174-5398.S2CID144446342.
  31. ^Scuzzarello, S. & Statham, P. (2022). Transgender kathoey socially imagining relationships with western men in Thailand: Aspirations for gender affirmation, upward social mobility, and family acceptance. Advances in Southeast Asian Studies, 15(2), 195-212.
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External links[edit]

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