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Kenning

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Not to be confused withkerning.
For other uses, seeKenning (disambiguation).

Akenning(Icelandic:[cʰɛnːiŋk]) is afigure of speechin the type ofcircumlocution,acompoundthat employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-wordnoun.Kennings are strongly associated withOld Norse-IcelandicandOld Englishalliterative verse.They continued to be a feature of Icelandic poetry (includingrímur) for centuries, together with the closely relatedheiti.

A kenning has two parts: a base-word (also known as a head-word) and a determinant. For example, the base-word of the kenning "íss rauðra randa" ('icicle of red shields' [SWORD],Einarr Skúlason:Øxarflokkr9) isíss('ice, icicle') and the determinant isrǫnd('rim, shield-rim, shield'). The thing, person, place or being to which the kenning refers is known as its referent (in this case a sword). Although kennings are sometimes hyphenated in English translation, Old Norse poetry did not require kennings to be in normal word order, nor do the parts of the kenning need to be side-by-side. The lack ofgrammatical casesin modern English makes this aspect of kennings difficult to translate.

Etymology[edit]

The corresponding modern verbto kensurvives in Scots and English dialects and in general English through the derivative existing in the standard language in the set expressionbeyond one's ken,"beyond the scope of one's knowledge" and in the phonologically altered formsuncanny,"surreal" or "supernatural", andcanny,"shrewd", "prudent". ModernScotsretains (with slight differences between dialects)tae ken"to know",kent"knew" or "known",Afrikaansken"be acquainted with" and "to know" andkennis"knowledge". Old Norsekenna(Modern Icelandickenna,Swedishkänna,Danishkende,Norwegiankjenneorkjenna) iscognatewith Old Englishcennan,Old Frisiankenna,kanna,Old Saxon(ant)kennian(Middle Dutch andDutchkennen),Old High German(ir-,in-,pi-)chennan(Middle High GermanandGermankennen),Gothickannjan<Proto-Germanic*kannjanan,originallycausativeof *kunnanan"to know (how to)", whenceModern Englishcan'to be able'. The word ultimately derives from*ǵneh₃,the sameProto-Indo-Europeanroot that yields Modern Englishknow,Latin-derived terms such ascognitionandignorant,andGreekgnosis.[1]

Structure[edit]

Old Norse kennings take the form of a genitive phrase (báru fákr"wave's horse" = "ship" (Þorbjörn Hornklofi:Glymdrápa3)) or acompound word(gjálfr-marr"sea-steed" = "ship" (Anon.:Hervararkviða27)). The simplest kennings consist of a base-word (Icelandicstofnorð,GermanGrundwort) and a determinant (Icelandickenniorð,GermanBestimmung) which qualifies, or modifies, the meaning of the base-word. The determinant may be a noun used uninflected as the first element in a compound word, with the base-word constituting the second element of the compound word. Alternatively the determinant may be a noun in the genitive case placed before or after the base-word, either directly or separated from the base-word by intervening words.[2]

Thus the base-words in these examples arefákr"horse" andmarr"steed", the determinantsbáru"waves" andgjálfr"sea". The unstated noun which the kenning refers to is called its referent, in this case:skip"ship".

In Old Norse poetry, either component of a kenning (base-word, determinant or both) could consist of an ordinary noun or aheiti"poetic synonym". In the above examples,fákrandmarrare distinctively poeticlexemes;the normal word for "horse" in Old Norseproseishestr.

Complex kennings[edit]

Theskaldsalso employed complex kennings in which the determinant, or sometimes the base-word, is itself made up of a further kenning:grennir gunn-más"feeder of war-gull" = "feeder ofraven"=" warrior "(Þorbjörn Hornklofi:Glymdrápa6);eyðendr arnar hungrs"destroyers of eagle's hunger" = "feeders of eagle" = "warrior" (Þorbjörn Þakkaskáld: Erlingsdrápa 1) (referring tocarrionbirdsscavengingafter a battle). Where one kenning is embedded in another like this, the whole figure is said to betvíkent"doubly determined, twice modified".[3]

Frequently, where the determinant is itself a kenning, the base-word of the kenning that makes up the determinant is attached uninflected to the front of the base-word of the whole kenning to form a compound word:mög-fellandi mellu"son-slayer of giantess" = "slayer of sons of giantess" = "slayer of giants" = "the godThor"(Steinunn Refsdóttir:Lausavísa2).

If the figure comprises more than three elements, it is said to berekit"extended".[3]Kennings of up to seven elements are recorded in skaldic verse.[4]Snorri himself characterises five-element kennings as an acceptable license but cautions against more extreme constructions:Níunda er þat at reka til hinnar fimtu kenningar, er ór ættum er ef lengra er rekit; en þótt þat finnisk í fornskálda verka, þá látum vér þat nú ónýtt."The ninth [license] is extending a kenning to the fifth determinant, but it is out of proportion if it is extended further. Even if it can be found in the works of ancient poets, we no longer tolerate it."[5]The longest kenning found in skaldic poetry occurs inHafgerðingadrápabyÞórðr Sjárekssonand readsnausta blakks hlé-mána gífrs drífu gim-slöngvir"fire-brandisher of blizzard of ogress of protection-moon of steed of boat-shed", which simply means "warrior".

Word order and comprehension[edit]

Word orderin Old Norse was generally much freer than in Modern English because Old Norse andOld Englisharesynthetic languages,where added prefixes and suffixes to the root word (the core noun, verb, adjective or adverb) carry grammatical meanings, whereas Middle English and Modern English use word order to carry grammatical information, asanalytic languages.This freedom is exploited to the full in skaldic verse and taken to extremes far beyond what would be natural in prose. Other words can intervene between a base-word and its genitive determinant, and occasionally between the elements of a compound word (tmesis). Kennings, and even whole clauses, can be interwoven. Ambiguity is usually less than it would be if an English text were subjected to the same contortions, thanks to the more elaboratemorphologyof Old Norse.

Another factor aiding comprehension is that Old Norse kennings tend to be highly conventional. Most refer to the same small set of topics, and do so using a relatively small set of traditional metaphors. Thus a leader or important man will be characterised as generous, according to one common convention, and called an "enemy of gold", "attacker of treasure", "destroyer ofarm-rings",etc. and a friend of his people. Nevertheless, there are many instances of ambiguity in the corpus, some of which may be intentional,[6]and some evidence that, rather than merely accepting it from expediency, skalds favoured contorted word order for its own sake.[7]

Semantics[edit]

Kennings could be developed into extended, and sometimes vivid, metaphors:tröddusk törgur fyr [...] hjalta harðfótum"shields were trodden under the hard feet of the hilt (sword blades)" (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir:Hákonarmál6);svarraði sárgymir á sverða nesi"wound-sea (=blood) sprayed on headland of swords (=shield)" (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 7).[8]Snorri calls such examplesnýgervingarand exemplifies them in verse 6 of his Háttatal. The effect here seems to depend on an interplay of more or less naturalistic imagery and jarring artifice. But the skalds were not averse either to arbitrary, purely decorative, use of kennings: "That is, a ruler will be a distributor of gold even when he is fighting a battle and gold will be called the fire of the sea even when it is in the form of a man'sarm-ringon his arm. If the man wearing a gold ring is fighting a battle on land the mention of the sea will have no relevance to his situation at all and does not contribute to the picture of the battle being described "(Faulkes (1997), pp. 8–9).

Snorri draws the line at mixed metaphor, which he termsnykrat"made monstrous" (Snorri Sturluson: Háttatal 6), and his nephew called the practicelöstr"a fault" (Óláfr hvítaskáld:Third Grammatical Treatise 80).[9]In spite of this, it seems that "many poets did not object to and some must have preferred baroque juxtapositions of unlike kennings and neutral or incongruous verbs in their verses" (Foote & Wilson (1970), p. 332). E.g.heyr jarl Kvasis dreyra"listen, earl, toKvasir's blood (=poetry) "(Einarr skálaglamm:Vellekla 1).

Sometimes there is a kind of redundancy whereby the referent of the whole kenning, or a kenning for it, is embedded:barmi dólg-svölu"brother of hostility-swallow" = "brother of raven" = "raven" (Oddr breiðfirðingr: Illugadrápa 1);blik-meiðendr bauga láðs"gleam-harmers of the land of rings" = "harmers of gleam of arm" = "harmers of ring" = "leaders, nobles, men of social standing (conceived of as generously destroying gold, i.e. giving it away freely)" (Anon.: Líknarbraut 42).

While some Old Norse kennings are relatively transparent, many depend on a knowledge of specificmythsor legends. Thus the sky might be called naturalisticallyél-ker"squall-vat" (Markús Skeggjason: Eiríksdrápa 3) or described in mythical terms asYmis haus"Ymir's skull "(Arnórr jarlaskáld:Magnúsdrápa 19), referring to the idea that the sky was made out of the skull of the primeval giant Ymir. Still others name mythical entities according to certain conventions without reference to a specific story:rimmu Yggr"Odinof battle "=" warrior "(Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 5).

Poets in medieval Iceland even treated Christian themes using the traditional repertoire of kennings complete with allusions toheathen mythsand aristocratic epithets for saints:Þrúðr falda"goddess of headdresses" = "Saint Catherine"(Kálfr Hallsson: Kátrínardrápa 4).[2]

Kennings of the type AB, where B routinely has the characteristic A and thus this AB is tautological, tend to mean "like B in that it has the characteristic A", e.g. "shield-Njörðr",tautological because the god Njörðr by nature has his own shield, means" like Njörðr in that he has a shield ", i.e." warrior ". A modern English example is"painted Jezebel"as a disapproving expression for a woman too fond of using cosmetics.

Kennings may include proper names. A modern example of this is anad hocusage by ahelicopter ambulancepilot: "theHeathrowofhang gliders"for the hills behindHawesin Yorkshire in England, when he found the air over the emergency site crowded with hang-gliders.[10]

Sometimes a name given to one well-known member of a species, is used to mean any member of that species. For example, Old Norsevalrmeans "falcon",but Old Norse mythology mentions a horse named Valr, and thus in Old Norse poetryvalris sometimes used to mean "horse".

Ellipsis[edit]

A term may be omitted from a well-known kenning:val-teigs Hildr"hawk-ground'svalkyrie/goddess "(Haraldr Harðráði:Lausavísa 19). The full expression implied here is "goddess of gleam/fire/adornment of ground/land/seat/perch of hawk" = "goddess of gleam of arm" = "goddess of gold" = "lady" (characterised according to convention as wearing golden jewellery, the arm-kenning being a reference tofalconry). The poet relies on listeners' familiarity with such conventions to carry the meaning.[11]

Definitions[edit]

Some scholars take the term kenning broadly to include any noun-substitute consisting of two or more elements, including merely descriptive epithets (such as Old Norsegrand viðar"bane of wood" = "fire" (Snorri Sturluson:Skáldskaparmál36)),[12]while others would restrict it tometaphoricalinstances (such as Old Norsesól húsanna"sun of the houses" = "fire" (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)),[13]specifically those where "[t]he base-word identifies the referent with something which it is not, except in a specially conceived relation which the poet imagines between it and the sense of the limiting element'" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Some even exclude naturalistic metaphors such as Old Englishforstes bend"bond of frost" = "ice" orwinter-ġewǣde"winter-raiment" = "snow": "A metaphor is a kenning only if it contains an incongruity between the referent and the meaning of the base-word; in the kenning the limiting word is essential to the figure because without it the incongruity would make any identification impossible" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Descriptive epithets are a common literary device in many parts of the world, whereas kennings in this restricted sense are a distinctive feature of Old Norse and, to a lesser extent, Old English poetry.[14]

Snorri's own usage, however, seems to fit the looser sense: "Snorri uses the term 'kenning' to refer to a structural device, whereby a person or object is indicated by a periphrastic description containing two or more terms (which can be a noun with one or more dependentgenitivesor a compound noun or a combination of these two structures) "(Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv). The term is certainly applied to non-metaphorical phrases inSkáldskaparmál:En sú kenning er áðr var ritat, at kalla Krist konung manna, þá kenning má eiga hverr konungr."And that kenning which was written before, calling Christ the king of men, any king can have that kenning.[15]Likewise inHáttatal:Þat er kenning at kalla fleinbrak orrostu [...]"It is a kenning to call battle 'spear-crash' [...]".[3]

Snorri's expressionkendheiti"qualified terms" appears to be synonymous withkenningar,[16][17]although Brodeur applies this more specifically to those periphrastic epithets which do not come under his strict definition of kenning.[18]

Sverdlov approaches the question from a morphological standpoint. Noting that the modifying component in Germanic compound words can take the form of a genitive or a bare root, he points to behavioural similarities between genitive determinants and the modifying element in regular Old Norse compound words, such as the fact that neither can be modified by a free-standing (declined) adjective.[19]According to this view, all kennings are formally compounds, notwithstanding widespread tmesis.

Old Norse kennings in context[edit]

In the followingdróttkvættstanza, the NorwegianskaldEyvindr skáldaspillir(d. ca 990) compares the greed of KingHarald Greycloak(Old Norse:Haraldr) to the generosity of his predecessor,Haakon the Good(Hákon):

Bárum, Ullr, of alla,
ímunlauks, á hauka
fjöllum Fýrisvalla
fræ Hákonar ævi;

nú hefr fólkstríðir Fróða
fáglýjaðra þýja
meldr í móður holdi
mellu dolgs of folginn
—Eyvindr skáldaspillir,Lausavísa

A literal translation reveals several kennings: "Ullrof the war-leek!We carried theseed ofFýrisvelliron ourhawk-mountainsduring all of Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden theflour ofFróði's hapless slavesin theflesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess."

This could be paraphrased as "O warrior, we carried gold on our arms during all of King Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden gold in the earth." The kennings are:

Ullr... ímunlauks,"warrior", fromUllr,the name of a god, andímun-laukr,"sword" (literally "war-leek" ). By convention, the name of any god can be associated with another word to produce a kenning for a certain type of man; here "Ullr of the sword" means "warrior." "War-leek" is a kenning for "sword" that likens the shape of the sword to that of a leek. The warrior referred to may be King Harald.

Hauka fjöllum,"arms", fromhauka"hawk" andfjöllmountain. This is a reference to the sport offalconry,where a bird of prey is perched on the arm of the falconer. By convention, "hawk" combined with a term for a geographic feature forms a kenning for "arm."

Fýrisvalla fræ,"gold", from "Fýrisvellir",the plains of the river Fýri, andfræ,"seed." This is an allusion to a legend retold inSkáldskaparmálandHrólfs saga krakain which King Hrolf and his men scattered gold on the plains (vellir) of the river Fýri south ofGamla Uppsalato delay their pursuers.

Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr,"flour of Fróði's hapless slaves", is another kenning for "gold." It alludes to theGrottasöngrlegend.

Móður hold mellu dolgs,"flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess." "earth." Here the earth is personified as the goddessJörð,mother ofThor,enemy of thejǫtnar.

Old English and other kennings[edit]

The practice of forming kennings has traditionally been seen as a common Germanic inheritance, but this has been disputed since, among the early Germanic languages, their use is largely restricted to Old Norse and Old English poetry.[13][20]A possible early kenning for "gold" (walha-kurna"Roman/Gallic grain" ) is attested in theProto-Norserunic inscription on theTjurkö (I)-C bracteate.[21][22]Kennings are virtually absent from the surviving corpus of continental West Germanic verse; theOld SaxonHeliandcontains only one example:lîk-hamo"body-raiment" = "body" (Heliand 3453 b),[23]a compound which, in any case, is normal inWest GermanicandNorth Germanicprose (Old Englishlīchama,Old High Germanlîchamo,lîchinamo,Dutchlichaam,Old Icelandiclíkamr,líkami,Old Swedishlīkhamber,Swedishlekamen,DanishandNorwegian Bokmållegeme,Norwegian Nynorsklekam).

Old English kennings are all of the simple type, possessing just two elements. Examples for "sea":seġl-rād"sail-road" (Beowulf1429 b),swan-rād"swan-road" (Beowulf 200 a),bæð-weġ"bath-way" (Andreas 513 a),hron-rād"whale-road" (Beowulf 10),hwæl-weġ"whale-way" (The Seafarer63 a). Most Old English examples take the form of compound words in which the first element is uninflected: "heofon-candel" "sky-candle" = "the sun" (Exodus 115 b). Kennings consisting of a genitive phrase occur too, but rarely:heofones ġim"heaven's gem" = "the sun" (The Phoenix 183).

Old English poets often place a series of synonyms in apposition, and these may include kennings (loosely or strictly defined) as well as the literal referent:Hrōðgar maþelode, helm Scyldinga... "Hrothgar,helm (=protector, lord) of theScyldings,said... "(Beowulf 456).

Although the word "kenning" is not often used for non-Germanic languages, a similar form can be found inBiblical poetryin its use ofparallelism.Some examples include Genesis 49:11, in which "blood of grapes" is used as a kenning for "wine",[24]and Job 15:14, where "born of woman" is a parallel for "man".[25][26]

Modern usage[edit]

Figures of speech similar to kennings occur in Modern English (both in literature and in regular speech), and are often found in combination with other poetic devices. For example, theMadnesssong "The Sun and the Rain"contains the line" standing up in the falling-down ", where" the falling-down "refers to rain and is used in juxtaposition to" standing up ". Some recent English writers have attempted to use approximations of kennings in their work.John Steinbeckused kenning-like figures of speech in his 1950 novellaBurning Bright,which was adapted into a Broadway play that same year.[27]According to Steinbeck biographerJay Parini,"The experiment is well-intentioned, but it remains idiosyncratic to the point of absurdity. Steinbeck invented compound phrases (similar to the Old English use of kennings), such as 'wife-loss' and 'friend-right' and 'laughter-starving,' that simply seem eccentric."[28]

Kennings remain somewhat common inGerman(Drahtesel"wire-donkey" for bicycle,Feuerstuhl"fire-chair" for motorcycle,Stubentiger"chamber-tiger" for cat, and so on).

The poetSeamus Heaneyregularly employed kennings in his work; for example, 'bone-house' for "skeleton".

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^"Help",Oxford English Dictionary,archived fromthe originalon May 7, 2020,retrievedMay 6,2020
  2. ^abRoss, Margaret Clunies (2007)."Verse-forms and Diction of Christian Skaldic Verse".Poetry on Christian Subjects.Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages 7.7.Turnhout: Brepols.Archivedfrom the original on Apr 27, 2021 – via Skaldic Project.
  3. ^abcFaulkes (1999), p. 5/12.
  4. ^FJËRKENNT,Apr 14, 2001, archived fromthe originalon 2001-04-14,retrievedMay 6,2020
  5. ^Faulkes 1991, 8:29–31; Faulkes 1987, 172.
  6. ^Faulkes (1997), pp. 11–17,
  7. ^Faulkes (1997), p. 15.
  8. ^Faulkes (1997), p. 24.
  9. ^Faulkes (1997), pp. 24–25.
  10. ^theReally (TV channel)television programHelicopter Heroes
  11. ^Gordon(1956), p. 250.
  12. ^Meissner (1921), p. 2.
  13. ^abHeusler (1941), p. 137.
  14. ^Gardner (1969), pp. 109–110.
  15. ^Faulkes (1998 a), p. 78/17, 22.
  16. ^Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv.
  17. ^Faulkes (1999), p. 5/9.
  18. ^Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253.
  19. ^Sverdlov (2006).
  20. ^Gardner (1969), pp. 109–117.
  21. ^Krause (1971), p. 63. Cited by Hultin (1974), p. 864.
  22. ^Looijenga (1997), pp. 24, 60, 205; Looijenga (2003), p. 42, 109, 218.
  23. ^Gardner (1969), pp. 110–111.
  24. ^Genesis 49:11
  25. ^Job 15:14
  26. ^Alter, Robert (2011),The Art of Biblical Poetry(New and revised ed.), New York: Basic Books, p. 16,ISBN978-0-465-02256-4,retrieved12 October2016
  27. ^Burning Bright – Broadway Play – Original | IBDB,retrievedMay 6,2020
  28. ^Parini, Jay (1995),John Steinbeck: A Biography,New York: Henry Holt & Co., p.343,ISBN0805016732

References[edit]

External links[edit]

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