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Khoisan

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(Redirected fromKhoi-San)
For other uses, seeKhoisan (disambiguation).
"Khoisa" redirects here. For the genus of moth, seeKhoisa (moth).
Khoisan
Sanman ofNamibia
Total population
~ 400,000[1](c. 2010)
Regions with significant populations
Namibia,Botswana,South Africa
Languages
Afrikaans,[2]Khoe-Kwadi languages,Kx'a languages,Tuu languages
Religion
MainlyChristianandAfrican Traditional Religion(San religion)
Related ethnic groups
Tswana,Xhosa,Coloured,Griqua

Khoisan/ˈkɔɪsɑːn/KOY-sahn,orKhoe-Sān(pronounced[kxʰoesaːn]), is a catch-all term for theindigenous peoplesofSouthern Africawho traditionally speak non-Bantu languages,combining theKhoekhoenand theSānpeoples. Khoisan populations traditionally speakclick languagesand are considered to be the historical communities throughout Southern Africa, remaining predominant until European colonisation in areas climatically unfavorable to Bantu (sorghum-based) agriculture, such as theCape region,through toNamibia,whereKhoekhoepopulations ofNamaandDamarapeople are prevalent groups, andBotswana.Considerable mingling with Bantu-speaking groups is evidenced by prevalence of click phonemes in many especially XhosaSouthern African Bantu languages.

Many Khoesān peoples are the descendants of a very early dispersal ofanatomically modern humansto Southern Africa before 150,000 years ago. (However, see below for recent work supporting a multi-regional hypothesis that suggests the Khoisan may be a source population for anatomically modern humans.)[3]Theirlanguagesshow a vague typological similarity, largely confined to the prevalence ofclick consonants.They are not verifiably derived from a common proto-language, but are today split into at least three separate and unrelatedlanguage families(Khoe-Kwadi,TuuandKxʼa). It has been suggested that the Khoekhoe may representLate Stone Agearrivals to Southern Africa, possibly displaced byBantu expansionreaching the area roughly between 1,500 and 2,000 years ago.[4]

Sān are popularly thought of asforagersin theKalahari Desertand regions of Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho and Northern South Africa. The wordsānis from the Khoekhoe language and refers to foragers ( "those who pick things up from the ground" ) who do not own livestock. As such, it was used in reference to all hunter-gatherer populations who came into contact with Khoekhoe-speaking communities, and was largely referring to the lifestyle, distinct from a pastoralist or agriculturalist one, and not to any particular ethnicity. While there are attendantcosmologiesand languages associated with this way of life, the term is an economic designator rather than a cultural or ethnic one.

Name

[edit]

The compound termKhoisan/Khoesānis a modern anthropological convention in use since the early-to-mid 20th century.Khoisanis a coinage by Leonhard Schulze in the 1920s and popularised byIsaac Schapera.[5]It entered wider usage from the 1960s based on the proposal of a "Khoisan"language family byJoseph Greenberg.

During the Colonial/Apartheid era, Afrikaans-speaking persons with partial Khoesān ancestry were historically also grouped asCape Blacks(Afrikaans:Kaap Swartes) orWestern Cape Blacks(Afrikaans:Wes-Kaap Swartes) to rather inaccurately distinguish them from theBantu-speaking peoples,the other indigenous African population of South Africa who also had significant Khoe-San ancestry.[6]

The termKhoisan(also spelledKhoiSan,Khoi-San,Khoe-San[7]) has also been introduced in South African usage as a self-designation after the end ofapartheidin the late 1990s. Since the 2010s, there has been a "Khoisan activist" movement, demanding recognition and land rights from the government and white minority which owns large parts of the country's private land.[8]

San man collectingdevil's claw

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]
Further information:Peopling of Africa,Haplogroup L0,andProto-Human language § Phonemic diversity
Further information:Klasies River Caves,Boomplaas Cave,andBlombos cave
Approximate area of the origin of L0d and L0k haplogroups in southern Africa, dated to before 90,000 years ago by Behar et al. (2008).[9]

It is suggested that the ancestors of the modern Khoisan expanded to southern Africa (fromEastorCentral Africa) before 150,000 years ago, possibly as early as before 260,000 years ago,[10][11]so that by the beginning of theMIS 5"megadrought"130,000 years ago, there were two ancestral population clusters in Africa, bearers ofmt-DNA haplogroup L0in southern Africa ancestral to the Khoi-San, and bearers ofhaplogroup L1-6in central/eastern Africa ancestral to everyone else.[citation needed]This group gave rise to theSanpopulation ofhunter gatherers.A much later wave of migration, around or before the beginning of theCommon Era,[12]gave rise to the Khoe people, who werepastoralists.[13]This group carried DNA fromEurasianas well as someNeanderthalgroups.

Due to their early expansion and separation, the populations ancestral to the Khoisan have been estimated as having represented the "largest human population" during the majority of theanatomically modern humantimeline, from their early separation before 150kyauntil therecent peopling of Eurasiasome 70 kya.[14]They were much more widespread than today, their modern distribution being due to their decimation in the course of theBantu expansion.They were dispersed throughout much of southern and southeastern Africa. There was also a significant back-migration of bearers of L0 towards eastern Africa between 120 and 75 kya. Rito et al. (2013) speculate that pressure from such back-migration may even have contributed to the dispersal of East African populations out of Africa at about 70 kya.[15]

Recent work has suggested that the multi-regional hypothesis may be supported by current human population genetic data. A 2023 study published in the journalNaturesuggests that current genetic data may be best understood as reflecting internal admixtures of multiple population sources across Africa, including ancestral populations of the Khoisan.[3]

Late Stone Age

[edit]
Further information:Kalahari DebateandSangoan
Schematic representation of the "out of South Africa" migration of the post-Eemian Middle to Late Stone Age (after 100 kya) inferred from mtDNA haplogroup L0 in modern African populations (Rito et al. 2013).[15]

The San populations ancestral to the Khoisan were spread throughout much of southern and eastern Africa throughout the Late Stone Age after about 75 ka. A further expansion dated to about 20 ka has been proposed based on the distribution of the L0d haplogroup. Rosti et al. suggest a connection of this recent expansion with the spread ofclick consonantsto eastern African languages (Hadza language).[15]

TheLate Stone AgeSangoanindustry occupied southern Africa in areas where annual rainfall is less than a metre (1000 mm; 39.4 in).[16]The contemporarySanandKhoipeoples resemble those represented by the ancient Sangoan skeletal remains.

Against the traditional interpretation that finds a common origin for the Khoi and San, other evidence has suggested that the ancestors of the Khoi peoples are relatively recent pre-Bantu agricultural immigrants to southern Africa who abandoned agriculture as the climate dried and either joined the San as hunter-gatherers or retained pastoralism.[17]

With the hypothesized arrival of pastoralists & bantoidagro-pastoralistsin southern Africa starting around 2,300 years ago, linguistic development is later seen in theclick consonantsand loan words from ancient Khoe-san languages into the evolution of blended agro-pastoralist & hunter-gatherer communities that would eventually evolve into the now extant, amalgamated modern native linguistic communities found in South Africa, Botswana & Namibia (e.g. in South AfricanXhosa,Sotho,Tswana,Zulupeople.)[18]

Today these groups represent the quantitative majority of extant admixed ancient Khoe-San descendants by the millions.[19]

Historical period

[edit]
Further information:Hottentot,Khoikhoi,Nama people,Damara people,andKhoe languages
Further information:San people,ǃKung,andKxʼa languages

TheKhoikhoienter the historical record with their first contact with Portuguese explorers, about 1,000 years after their displacement by the Bantu. Local population dropped after the Khoi were exposed tosmallpoxfrom Europeans. The Khoi waged more frequent attacks against Europeans when theDutch East India Companyenclosed traditional grazing land for farms. Khoikhoi social organisation was profoundly damaged and, in the end, destroyed by colonial expansion and land seizure from the late 17th century onwards. As social structures broke down, some Khoikhoi people settled on farms and became bondsmen (bondservants) or farm workers; many were incorporated into existing Khoi clan and family groups of theXhosa people.Georg Schmidt, aMoravianBrother fromHerrnhut,Saxony, now Germany, foundedGenadendalin 1738, which was the first mission station in southern Africa,[20]among the Khoi people in Baviaanskloof in theRiviersonderend Mountains.Early European settlers sometimes intermarried with Khoikhoi women, resulting in a sizeablemixed-racepopulation now known as theGriqua.The Griqua people too would migrate to what was by that time the frontierlands of the Xhosa native reserves and establish Griqualand East, which contained a mostly Xhosa population.

AKhoikhoisettlement inTable Bay,as depicted in an engraving inAbraham Bogaert'sHistorische Reizen,1711

Andries Stockenströmfacilitated the creation of the "Kat River" Khoi settlement near the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony. The settlements thrived and expanded, and Kat River quickly became a large and successful region of the Cape that subsisted more or less autonomously. The people were predominantlyAfrikaans-speakingGonaquaKhoi, but the settlement also began to attract other Khoi, Xhosa and mixed-race groups of the Cape.

The so-called "Bushman wars"[year needed]were to a large extent the response of the San after their dispossession.[citation needed]

At the start of the 18th century, the Khoikhoi in the Western Cape lived in a state dominated by the Dutch. By the end of the century the majority of the Khoisan operated as 'wage labourers', not that dissimilar to slaves. Geographically, the further away the labourer was from Cape Town, the more difficult it became to transport agricultural produce to the markets. The issuing of grazing licences north of the Berg River in what was then the Tulbagh Basin propelled colonial expansion in the area. This system of land relocation led to the Khoijhou losing their land and livestock as well as dramatic change in the social, economic and political development.[21]

After the defeat of the Xhosa rebellion in 1853, the new Cape Government endeavoured to grant the Khoi political rights to avert future racial discontent. The government enacted theCape franchisein 1853, which decreed that all male citizens meeting a low property test, regardless of colour, had the right to vote and to seek election in Parliament. The property test was an indirect way by the British Cape Government (who took over from the Dutch in 1812) to retain a racist based system of governance because on average only white people owned property adequate to meet the test.[22]

In theHerero and Namaqua genocideinGerman South-West Africa,over 10,000 Nama are estimated to have been killed during 1904–1907.[23][24]

San family in Namibia

TheSanof theKalahariwere described inSpecimens of Bushman FolklorebyWilhelm H. I. BleekandLucy C. Lloyd(1911). They were brought to the globalised world's attention in the 1950s by South African authorLaurens van der Postin a six-part television documentary. TheAncestral land conflict in Botswanaconcerns theCentral Kalahari Game Reserve(CKGR), established in 1961 for wildlife, while the San were permitted to continue their hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In the 1990s, the government of Botswana began a policy of "relocating" CKGR residents outside the reserve. In 2002, the government cut off all services to CKGR residents. A legal battle began, and in 2006 the High Court of Botswana ruled that the residents had been forcibly and unconstitutionally removed. The policy of relocation continued, however, and in 2012 the San people (Basarwa) appealed to the United Nations to force the government to recognise their land and resource rights.

Following the end ofApartheidin 1994, the term "Khoisan" has gradually come to be used as a self-designation by South African Khoikhoi as representing the "first nations" of South Africa vis-a-vis the ruling Bantu majority. A conference on "Khoisan Identities and Cultural Heritage" was organised by theUniversity of the Western Capein 1997.[25]and "Khoisan activism" has been reported in the South African media beginning in 2015.[8]

The South African government allowed Khoisan families (up until 1998) to pursue land claims which existed prior to 1913. The South African Deputy Chief Land Claims Commissioner, Thami Mdontswa, has said that constitutional reform would be required to enable Khoisan people to pursue further claims to land from which their direct ancestors were removed prior to 9 June 1913.[26]

  • "Bosjemans frying locusts", aquatint by Samuel Daniell (1805).
    "Bosjemans frying locusts", aquatint bySamuel Daniell(1805).
  • San woman in Namibia (1984 photograph)
    San woman in Namibia (1984 photograph)
  • Bushman camp 2005
    Bushman camp 2005

Discoveries

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In 2019, scientists from theUniversity of the Free Statediscovered 8,000-year-old carvings made by the Khoisan people. The carvings depicted a hippopotamus, horse, and antelope in the 'Rain Snake' Dyke of theVredefort impact structure,which may have spiritual significance regarding the rain-making mythology of the Khoisan.[27]

Violence against the Khoisan

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Herero and Namaqua Genocide

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Main article:Herero and Namaqua genocide

In theHerero and Namaqua genocide,about 10,000Nama,a Khoekhoe group, and an unknown number of San people were killed in an extermination campaign by theGerman Colonial Empirebetween 1904 and 1908.

Forced relocation in Botswana

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See also:Ancestral land conflict in Botswana

InBotswana,many of the indigenous San people have beenforcibly relocatedfrom their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.[28]Their lands lie in the middle of the world's richestdiamondfield. Officially, the government denies that there is any link to mining and claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.[28]On the reservations they struggle to find employment, andalcoholismis rampant.[28]

Languages

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Main article:Khoisan languages
Green: The modern distribution of theKhoisan languagesspoken by Khoi and San peoples, plus theSandawe languageof theSandawe peopleandHadza languageof Tanzania.

The "Khoisan languages" were proposed as a linguistic phylum byJoseph Greenbergin 1955.[29]Theirgenetic relationshipwas questioned later in the 20th century, and the term now serves mostly as a convenience term without implying genetic unity, much like "Papuan"and"Australian"are.[30]Their most notable uniting feature is theirclick consonants.

They are categorized in two families, and a number of possible language isolates.

TheKxʼafamily was proposed in 2010, combining theǂʼAmkoe(ǂHoan) language with theǃKung (Juu)dialect cluster. ǃKung includes about a dozen dialects, with no clear-cut delineation between them. Sands et al. (2010) propose a division into four clusters:

TheKhoi (Khoe)family is divided into a Khoikhoi (KhoekhoeandKhoemanadialects) and a Kalahari (Tshu–Khwe) branch. The Kalahari branch of Khoe includesShuaandTsoa(with dialects), andKxoe,Naro,GǁanaandǂHaba(with dialects). Khoe also has been tentatively aligned withKwadi( "Kwadi–Khoe" ), and more speculatively with theSandawe languageofTanzania( "Khoe–Sandawe" ). TheHadza languageofTanzaniahas been associated with the Khoisan group due to the presence of click consonants.

Physical characteristics and genetics

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Further information:Haplogroup A-P305,Haplogroup A-L1085,andHaplogroup L0

The Khoisan are one of the only populations withepicanthic foldsoutside of East Asia. They typically have hair texture of the tightest possible curl, a form ofkinky hairsometimes referred to as "peppercorn" because of how it can roll into separate rounds on the scalp.

Charles Darwinwrote about the Khoisan andsexual selectioninThe Descent of Manin 1882, commenting that theirsteatopygia,seen primarily in females,evolvedthroughsexual selection in human evolution,and that "the posterior part of the body projects in a most wonderful manner".[32]Historically, some females were observed by anthropologists to exhibitelongated labia minora,which sometimes projected as much as 10 cm below the vulva when standing.[33]Though well documented, the motivations behind this practice and the voices of the women who perform it are rarely explored in the research.[34]

In the 1990s, genomic studies of the world's peoples found that theY chromosomeof San men share certain patterns ofpolymorphismsthat are distinct from those of all other populations.[35]Because the Y chromosome is highly conserved between generations, this type of DNA test is used to determine when different subgroups separated from one another, and hence their last common ancestry. The authors of these studies suggested that the San may have been one of the first populations to differentiate from themost recent common paternal ancestorof all extant humans.[36][37][needs update]

Various Y-chromosome studies[38][39][40]since confirmed that the Khoisan carry some of the most divergent (oldest)Y-chromosome haplogroups.These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroupsAandB,the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.[needs update]

Similar to findings from Y-chromosome studies, mitochondrial DNA studies also showed evidence that the Khoisan people carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup,L0d,has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African Khoi and San groups.[38][41][42][43]The distinctiveness of the Khoisan in both matrilineal and patrilineal groupings is a further indicator that they represent a population historically distinct from other Africans.[44]

Some genomic studies have further revealed that Khoisan groups have been influenced by 9 to 30% genetic admixture in the last few thousand years from an East African population who carried a Eurasian admixture component.[45]Furthermore, they place an East African origin for the paternal haplogroupE1b1bfound in these Southern African populations,[46]as well as the introduction of pastoralism into the region.[47]The paper also noted that the Bantu expansion had a notable genetic impact in a number of Khoisan groups.[46]On the basis of PCA projections, the East African ancestry identified in the genomes of Khoe-Kwadi speakers and other southern Africans is related to an individual from the TanzanianLuxmanda.[48]

Centre

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On 21 September 2020, theUniversity of Cape Townlaunched its new Khoi and San Centre, with an undergraduate degree programme planned to be rolled out in the following years. The centre will support and consolidate this collaborative work on research commissions onlanguage(includingKhoekhoegowab), sacred human remains, land and gender. Many descendants of Khoisan people still live on theCape Flats.[49]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Their total numbers are estimated at roughly 300,000 Khoikhoi and 90,000 San: 200kNama people(2010): Brenzinger, Matthias (2011) "The twelve modern Khoisan languages." In Witzlack-Makarevich & Ernszt (eds.), Khoisan languages and linguistics: proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Riezlern / Kleinwalsertal (Research in Khoisan Studies 29). 100kDamara people(1996): James Stuart Olson, « Damara » in The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, p. 137. 50-60k San people in Botswana (2010):Anaya, James (2 June 2010).Addendum – The situation of indigenous peoples in Botswana(PDF)(Report). United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/15/37/Add.2..
  2. ^Parkinson, Christian (2016-06-14)."The first South Africans fight for their rights".BBC News.Most [Khoisan people] now speak Afrikaans as their first language.
  3. ^abRagsdale, Aaron P.; Weaver, Timothy D.; Atkinson, Elizabeth G.; Hoal, Eileen G.; Möller, Marlo; Henn, Brenna M.; Gravel, Simon (2023)."A weakly structured stem for human origins in Africa".Nature.617(7962): 755–763.Bibcode:2023Natur.617..755R.doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06055-y.PMC10208968.PMID37198480.
  4. ^Barnard, Alan (1992).Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A comparative ethnography of the Khoisan peoples.New York, NY; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  5. ^Schapera, Isaac(1930).The Khoisan peoples of South Africa: Bushmen and Hottentots.Routledge.
  6. ^Christopher, A. J. (2002). "'To Define the Indefinable': Population Classification and the Census in South Africa ".Area.34(4): 401–408.Bibcode:2002Area...34..401C.doi:10.1111/1475-4762.00097.JSTOR20004271.
  7. ^The hyphenated spellingKhoe-SanorKhoi-Sanis recent (post-1990). Note that this usage is distinct from the occasional usage ofKhoi-Sanfor the Khoe-speaking subset of the San, e.g. "the Ai-San, the Kun-San, the Au-ai-san, the An-San, the Matsana-Khoi-San, and the Bushmen of Otave" in John Noble,Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa(1893), p. 395. SpellingsKhoi-SanandKhoe-Sanin Mohamed Adhikar,Burdened by Race: Coloured Identities in Southern Africa(2009),p. 148.
  8. ^ab Khoisan march to Parliament to demand land rights,ENCA, 3 December 2015. Pelane Phakgadi,Ramaphosa meets aggrieved Khoisan activists at Union Buildings,Eyewitness News,24 December 2017. Illegitimate Khoisan leaders are trying to exploit new bill,IOL, 17 April 2018.
  9. ^Behar, Doron M.; Villems, Richard; et al. (2008)."The Dawn of Human Matrilineal Diversity".The American Journal of Human Genetics.82(5): 1130–1140.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002.PMC2427203.PMID18439549.Both the tree phylogeny and coalescence calculations suggest that Khoisan matrilineal ancestry diverged from the rest of the human mtDNA pool 90,000–150,000 years before present (ybp)
  10. ^Schlebusch, Carina M.; Malmström, Helena; et al. (2017)."Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago".Science.358(6363): 652–655.Bibcode:2017Sci...358..652S.doi:10.1126/science.aao6266.PMID28971970.
  11. ^Estimated split times given in the source cited (inkya): Human-Neanderthal: 530-690, Deep Human [H. sapiens]: 250-360, NKSP-SKSP: 150-190, Out of Africa (OOA): 70–120.
  12. ^Crowe, Tim (4 February 2016)."How the origin of the KhoiSan tells us that 'race' has no place in human ancestry".The Conversation.Retrieved4 August2022.
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  20. ^The Pear Tree Blossoms,Bernhard Krueger, Hamburg, Germany
  21. ^James, Wilmot Godfrey; Simons, Mary (2008).Class, Caste and Color: A Social and Economic History of the South African Western Cape.Transaction Publishers. pp. 1–10.ISBN978-1-4128-1970-1.
  22. ^Fraser, Ashleigh (3 June 2013)."A Long Walk To Universal Franchise In South Africa".Helen Suzman Foundation.
  23. ^Jeremy Sarkin-Hughes (2008)Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908,p. 142, Praeger Security International, Westport, Conn.ISBN978-0-313-36256-9
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  25. ^Hitchcock, Robert K.; Biesele, Megan."San, Khwe, Basarwa, or Bushmen? Terminology, Identity, and Empowerment in Southern Africa".Kalahari Peoples Fund.Archived fromthe originalon 2 August 2020.Retrieved15 January2014.
  26. ^Mercedes Besent."SABC News – Possible constitution changes for Khoisan land claims: Wednesday 16 October 2013".sabc.co.za.Archived fromthe originalon 23 November 2016.Retrieved11 January2014.
  27. ^EDT, Hannah Osborne On 6/13/19 at 11:49 AM (2019-06-13)."8,000-year-old carvings by ancient humans discovered in world's biggest asteroid impact crater".Newsweek.Retrieved2020-09-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  34. ^Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2008)."Elongation of the labia minora and use of vaginal products to enhance eroticism: Can these practices be considered FGM?"(PDF).Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration.3:42–53. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2022-01-28.Retrieved2022-01-28.
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