Jump to content

Kingdom of Yemen

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
المملكة المتوكلية اليمنية(Arabic)
al-Mamlakah al-Mutawakkilīyah al-Yamanīyah
1918–1970
Anthem:"Royal Salute"
(تحية ملكية)
The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen before theSaudi–Yemeni war (1934)
The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen after the Saudi–Yemeni war (1934)
StatusMember of theUnited Arab States(1958–1961)
CapitalSanaa(1918–1948)
Taiz(1948–1962)
Common languagesArabic
Religion
ZaydiShiaIslam(official)
GovernmentIslamictheocraticabsolute monarchy
King-Imam
• 1918–1948
Yahya Hamid ed-Din
• 1948–1962
Ahmad bin Yahya
• 1962–1970
Muhammad al-Badr
History
• Independence from theOttoman Empire
30 October 1918
•Admitted to theUnited Nations
30 September 1947
26 September 1962
• Monarchy abolished
1 December 1970
CurrencyNorth Yemeni rial
Time zoneUTC+3
Calling code967
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Yemen Vilayet
Idrisid Emirate of Asir
Baidah Sultanate
Yemen Arab Republic
Today part ofYemen

TheKingdom of Yemen(Arabic:المملكة اليمنية,romanized:al-Mamlakah al-Yamanīyah), officially theMutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen(Arabic:المملكة المتوكلية اليمنية,romanized:al-Mamlakah al-Mutawakkilīyah al-Yamanīyah) and also known simply asYemenor, retrospectively, asNorth Yemen,was a state that existed between 1918 and 1970 in the northwestern part of what is nowYemen.Located in the Middle East, the Kingdom of Yemen had an area of 195,000 km2.The country was bordered by Saudi Arabia in the north, and theAden Protectorateto the south. Its capital wasSanaafrom 1918 to 1948, thenTaizfrom 1948 to 1962.[1]Yemen was admitted to theUnited Nationson 30 September 1947.[2]From 1962 to 1970, it maintained control over portions of Yemen until its final defeat in theNorth Yemen civil war.

Three days after the Ottoman Empire's decision to withdraw from Yemen following the 1918Armistice of Mudros,Imam Yahya, the religious leader of the region, entered Sana'a and declared himself the ruler of Yemen. After declaring his rule, he launched attacks on Aden, which was under the auspices of theBritish Empire,but the British repelled the attacks. After these attacks, he suppressed the rebellions of the tribes in Southern Tihama and advanced towards theEmirate of Asir.It increased its legitimacy by making agreements with theKingdom of Italyand theSoviet Union.Then, in 1927, he again attacked the countries under the auspices of the British Empire, and these attacks also failed. In 1934, he signed a friendship treaty with the United Kingdom, promising not to attack Aden in exchange for border negotiations. TheSaudi-Yemeni warbroke out because he did not accept to surrender the Emir of Asir, who was loyal to Saudi Arabia at that time and rebelled. Four months later, Yemen made peace by givingJizan,Najran,andAsirto Saudi Arabia. After this war, the Kingdom of Yemen began to pursue an isolationist policy. While Imam Yahya enjoyed legitimacy among the Zaydi tribes in the northern areas, the Sunni population in the coastal and southern regions were less inclined to accept his rule. To maintain power, he maintainedauthoritarian ruleand appointed his sons to rule various provinces. Therefore, as a result of the growing discontent,Imam Yahyawas assassinated in 1948 by revolutionaries who wanted to establish a constitutional government, but his sonAhmad bin Yahya,who was the crown prince at the time, seized power with the help of loyal Zaydi tribes. In 1958, Ahmed bin Yahya joined theUnited Arab Statesunder pressure from Egyptian presidentGamal Abdel Nasser.However, when Syria left the union in 1961, Yemen also left the union. After the death of Ahmed bin Yahya, one week after his sonMuhammad al-Badrcame to power, the soldiers under the leadership ofAbdullah al-Sallal,supported by Egypt, staged a coup and established theYemen Arab Republic.Al-Badr fled to the mountains and started acivil warwith the help of Zaydi tribes. Saudi Arabia supported al-Badr, while Egypt sent troops to support al-Sallal. After Egypt's defeat by Israel in 1967, negotiations began between royalists and republicans for a ceasefire, and in 1970, the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was officially dissolved in exchange for royalists having influence in the government.

The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was anautocratic,theocratickingdom governed under anabsolute monarchy.The country did not have an official language, although the majority of the population spokeArabic,with a minority speakingYemenite Hebrew.Of the country, 90% were Arabs, ~10% were Afro-Arabs, and a small portion were Yemeni Jews beforeOperation Magic Carpet,which took place between 1949 and 1950. The population was ~55%ZaydiMuslim, ~45%Sunni Muslim,and a small portion was Jewish before Operation Magic Carpet. The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen, a member of theUnited Nationsand theArab League,joined theUnited Arab Statesin 1958 and left in 1961.

Etymology

[edit]
Further information:Arabia Felix,South Arabia,andGreater Yemen

There are various sources about the etymology of Yemen. The term Yamnat is used in ancient South Arabian inscriptions to refer to the second Himyarite king. It is mentioned in the title ofShammar Yahrish.This term probably refers to the coastline betweenAdenandHadhramaut.[3][4]Historically, Yemen encompassed a larger region stretching from northernAsirin Saudi Arabia toDhufarin southern Oman. This region is calledGreater Yemen.[5][6]

It is claimed that Yemen is derived from the name al-yamin (Arabic:اليمين,lit. 'Right') because Yemen is to the south of theKaaba,that is, to its right according to maps, when turning towards the east ofMecca,which is considered the center of the world according toIslamic geographers.[7][8][9]Other sources claim that Yemen comes from the rootyamnoryumn,meaning happiness or blessed.[10][11]

While the rest of Arabia was calledArabia Desertaby theHellenistic Greeks,Arabia Eudaimon (Greek:Εὐδαίμων Ἀραβία,romanized:Evdaímon Áravía) by Roman geographers, andArabia Felix(English: Fertile/Fortunate Arabia) by the Arabs. Yemen was calledas-Sa'id(Arabic:اليمن السعيد,lit. 'Happy Yemen').[12]

History

[edit]
Part ofa serieson the
History ofYemen
Ancient history
Islamic history
Modern history
flagYemen portal
Main article:history of Yemen

Background

[edit]
Main article:Yemen Eyalet
Ottoman soldiers and local Yemeni people
Ottoman soldiers with Yemeni locals

In 1849, the Ottoman Empire conquered theTihamaregion in order for the Zaydi imam to recognize Ottoman sovereignty and allow Ottoman forces to deploy to Sana'a.[13]Ahmed Muhtar Pashawith the Fırka-i İhtiyâtiyye Army to which he was assigned After eliminating Muhammed Âiz inAsir,he re-established the Ottoman authority in Yemen by taking Sana'a, the most important city of Yemen, during the governorship of Yemen to which he was appointed in 1872.[14]Ahmed Pasha not only established authority but also initiated construction works in Yemen. In addition to a castle, a mosque, and an imaret, he had a printing house established in San'a and a telegraph line was laid between San'a and Hudaydah. However, the Zaydis, who wanted their imams to rule Yemen, rebelled in 1889 because the Ottoman officials serving in the region were involved in corruption in administrative affairs.[15]Hejaz Governor Ahmed Feyzi Pasha, who was assigned to suppress the rebellion, fromHudaydahHe advanced to Sana'a and Taiz and suppressed the rebellion in a short time. Not only was it difficult to suppress the rebellions in Yemen, but the poverty of the Yemeni people increased because reforms could not be made because they were costly to the Ottoman Empire. Since the discontent of the people could not be resolved, they rebelled even more.[16]Abdul Hamid IImade some reforms to eliminate the authority of Imam Yahya and eased the tax burden of the poor in Yemen and built schools. He tried to put an end to the rebellions by appointing officers who spoke Arabic to Yemen. After therebellionsof 1882, 1896, 1902, 1904 and 1910. Shortly before World War II; In 1913, the Ottoman Empire was forced to cede some authority to Imam Yahya, who was officially the Zaydi imam. In return, Imam Yahya promised that he would not cooperate with Seyyid Idrisi against the Ottoman Empire.[17]Then, Along with World War I, many wars took place in Yemen.

Imam Yahya period (1918-1948)

[edit]
Further information:Imam YahyaandSouth Arabia during World War I
Yemen in 1919
Imam Yahya and his troops in Sana'a

As the fronts turned into a stalemate in the First World War, Imam Yahya, the Zaydi imam of the time, became worried about what would happen to himself and Yemen. In order to avoid any harm to himself, Imam Yahya began to think of leavingLahijto the British and asking for the opening of sea lanes and the stopping of British and Seyyid Idrisi attacks in return.[18]On 30 October 1918, he signed theMudros Armisticeof the Ottoman Empire.[19]After this situation,Imam Yahyaentered Sana'a and declared the independence of Yemen, and 3 days after independence, Imam Yahya declared himself the ruler of the Zaydi Emirate of Yemen.[20][21]According to the armistice, the Ottoman Empire was to withdraw from all of Yemen, but the governor of the city, Mahmut Nedim Bey, and the commander of the 40th Division, Galib Bey, did not comply with this order for 45 days. Corps CommanderAhmet Tevfik Pashapaid a small amount of the soldiers' overdue salaries from the Provincial coffers. Imam Yahya stated that he would not object if the corps decided to surrender the Corps units, and he requested that some of the weapons and ammunition in the troops be given to him as a precaution against possible attacks in the future, but some commanders objected to this.[22]Taiz Operations Regional Commander Ali Sait Pasha took the initiative and went to Aden and met with the British. Since Ahmet Tevfik Pasha took the time to evacuate Yemen, the British ordered VII. The corps and Yahya's delegation sat at the table with the British, but no result came out of this negotiation.[23]The resistance continued for 1 more month, then VII. The Corps and the 40th Division handed over most of their ammunition to Imam Yahya and sold the rest to the tribes to provide subsistence to the soldiers. On January 23, 1919, the last Ottoman force surrendered to the British.[citation needed]Although most of the officers had left, Mahmud Nedim Bey and 200 Ottoman officers were still detained by Imam Yahya in Sana'a.[23][24][25]The civil servants who stayed in Yemen repeatedly wrote letters to the governments of Istanbul and Ankara for the payment of their salaries until the Treaty of Lausanne was signed.[26]In a letter dated October 13, 1923, he stated that it was appropriate and necessary for the Yemenis to establish their own administration, that it was not possible to meet the financial demands, but that the necessary experts or civil servants were needed for organization. It was written that Turkey could help, provided that their salaries were paid by the Yemeni administration. They held important positions such as Mahmut Nedim the governor of Sana'a and Ragıp Pasha the minister of foreign affairs.[27][28]Imam Yahya wanted Mahmud Nedim Bey, whose official duty ended after theTreaty of Lausanne,to stay in Yemen. However, Mahmud Nedim Bey returned to Turkey in 1924.[29]Then he tried to bring the remaining Turks to Turkey. In 1926, some civil servants returned to Turkey. The Turks who remained in Yemen intermarried with the locals, and most of them were later presumed dead by those in Turkey.[30]

Residence of Imam Yahya Dârü'l-Hajar
Dar al Hajar,The Imam's royal residence

Imam Yahya wanted to realize theGreater Yemenideal from the Kasimid period.[31]That's why he declared that he did not recognize theViolet Linedetermined by the Ottoman Empire and England in March 1914[32][33]andGreater Yemenbegan to advance towards the British-controlledAden Protectoratein 1919 to realize its ideal, but the Yemenis retreated with the counter-attack of the British army.[34]Coming after the retreating army of Imam Yahya The British army also occupied the port of al-Hudaydah and handed it over to Asir Emirate.[35][36]After the loss ofHudaydah,Imam Yahya attacked Aden again in 1922. 50 km before Aden,British Air Forcehad to retreat because Imam Yahya's army was under heavy bombardment.[37][38]

In order to gain more control over the tribes in Yemen, he waged war against the rebellious Hashid and Bakil tribes in 1922.[39]Since Imam Yahya knew about the brutality of crown Prince Ahmed bin Yahya, he appointed him as a commander in the rebellions. After many clashes between the Hashid bandits and the Victorious Army, the Hashid tribe was defeated. By the order of Prince Ahmed bin Yahya, the army plundered the Hashid tribe and raped many people.[40]After this incident, Imam Yahya ordered the crown Prince Ahmed bin Yahya to arrest the chiefs and sheikhs of the Hashid tribes, collect the captives, and also ask the Hashid tribe to cover the war damages. He ordered him to collect a small amount of taxes and to demolish the houses of those who refused. The arrested Hashid sheikhs and tribal leaders were sent to Ghamdan prison. Everyone except the children was tortured and killed.[41]

Arabia map in 1925

In 1924, al-Jawf and Bayda tribes rebelled. Thereupon, Imam Yahya sent the New Army led by SayyidAbdullah al-Wazirto suppress the rebellion. After establishing his authority over the tribes, Imam Yahya, who wanted to benefit from the struggle for the throne that emerged in the Emirate of Asir after the death of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi in 1923, captured Hudaydah with troops consisting of tribal members, most of whom were from the Hashid tribe.[42]A number of shrines, considered saints by the inhabitants of Hudaydah, were destroyed by Imam Yahya's army during these conflicts.[43]While Hudaydah was captured, al-Jawf tribes rebelled and the rebellion ended after a short conflict. Then he headed towards Sabya and besieged al-Idrisi's sonAli bin Idrisi.In 1926, the Imam's army raided tribes that did not recognize him inJizanandNajran[44]Ali bin IdrisiHe pledged his allegiance to Imam Yahya on condition that he recognized him as the ruler of Southern Asir But Imam Yahya rejected this offer, claiming that the Idrisis were of Moroccan origin. According to Imam Yahya; Along with the British, the Idrisians were nothing but intruders and had to be permanently expelled from Yemen.[45]This policy was negotiated with the United Kingdom and theKingdom of Hejaz and Nejdunder their pressure. caused him to have problems.[46]In 1926, A dispute broke out between theKingdom of Hejaz and Nejdand Yemen over the territorial sharing ofNajran.[47]

Imam Yahya's children, 1930s

Imam Yahya, British in South Yemen to put pressure on the 's and to draw a borderline between two occupying powers[a]in a land that does not belong to them[b]' and started to raid theAden Protectorate.In response, the British began bombing Yemen, especiallyTaizandIbb.[48][49]Since Yemen did not have an air force and air defense system, Yemen could not react and suffered too many casualties. That's why the imam had to stop the raids. Later,Ali Nasır el-Kardeyset out with a tribal union to capture Shabwa, which lies to the south ofViolet Line.[50]Without conflict, the tribes submitted to Imam Yahya. After the tribes in Shabwa came under the yoke of the imam, the British started bombing the tribes in Shabwa. The real reason they bombed the tribes was to further shake the Imam's shaken authority.[51]

The country that first recognized Imam Yahya as the king of all Yemen became the Kingdom of Italy with theItalo-Yemeni Treatysigned in 1926. Thus, the Imam is especially important in Arab geography.

Saudi-Yemeni War

[edit]
Main article:Saudi–Yemeni War (1934)
Display of the war on the map(click on it if it is not working.)
Kingdom of Yemen
Saudi Arabia

The Idrisis rebelled against Saudi Arabia andSaudi Arabiasoon suppressed the rebellion. Emir Idrisi took refuge in Yemen. That's why Yemen-Saudi Arabia relations began to become tense. Imam Yahya did not comply with the agreement and attacked Najran.[52]Imam Yahya demanded that the administration in Asir be left to al-Idrisi. When an agreement could not be reached with the ambassadors sent by Saudi Arabia, the ambassadors were imprisoned.

The United Kingdom signed friendship treaties with both sides to remain neutral[53]but still provided aircraft and weapons aid to Saudi Arabia before the war.[54]The British maintained Yemen's independence for forty years. and although Imam Yahya did not accept the Violet line, he promised not to attackAdenin exchange for border negotiations.[55][56]

In March 1934,Abdulaziz ibn Saudordered his sonPrince Saudto occupy the shadow of Tihama and al-Hudaydah.[57]20 March 1934' Saudi Arabia officially declared war on Yemen. Thus began theSaudi-Yemen War.In the war, Yemen had an army of 37,000 and the Saudis had an army of 30,000.[58]At the beginning of the war, the Saudis advanced rapidly and captured Hajara andNajranon 7 and 21 April, respectively.[59]May 1934, bypassing the Yemen Mountains They capturedal-Hudaydah.After capturing it, they began to plunder the city. When they threatened to plunder the traders from the Dominion of India, they gave up plundering when soldiers from theRoyal Navyarrived to restore order. Famine began to occur in Sana'a. The imam denied rumors that his son was killed while escaping.

Yemeni troops entering Hudaydah, 1934
Hudeidia, 1934

Yemen is stuck in the city of Sana'a. Neither British nor Italian forces were expected to intervene in the region.[60]Ibn Sauddemanded the imam's abdication, five-year control of the border region and the exile of the former Emir of Asir from Yemen, but Imam Yahya did not accept. Although the Saudis had better weapons, especially tanks, they did not fall to San because Saudi Arabia's soldiers could not adapt to the mountainous region and Yemeni soldiers were more experienced. Ibn Saud decided to make an agreement with Yemen because he was not in a position to continue the war and there was a possibility of a new Muslim Brotherhood rebellion.12 May 1934' Peace talks started in. Ibn Saud claimed that he was not interested in Yemeni lands. He gave up his demand for Imam Yahya's abdication and demanded a 20-year ceasefire.[61]The present-day Yemen-Saudi Arabia border was determined with theTaif Treatysigned on 14 June 1934.[61]Kingdom of Yemen; He had to leave Najran, Asir and Jizan to the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd.[62][63]End Saudi troops left Yemen on July 7.[64]

HistorianHans Kohnwriting in Foreign Affairs Magazine noted that some European observers tended to view this conflict as actually a clash of British and Italian interests. He evaluated that although Saudis have ties with England and Yemen with Italy, ultimately the rivalry between the two emirates will not feed the rivalry between the two countries.

Post-war

[edit]

Failure to recognize the southern border of his kingdom with theBritishAden Protectorate(laterPeople's Democratic Republic of Yemen) negotiated by Yahya's ulema, despite the Treaty of Friendship at Sana'a, From time to time it caused conflicts with the British.[citation needed]On October 15, 1937, the Italian-Yemen Treaty was extended.

World War II and after

[edit]
Main article:Neutral powers during World War II § Yemen

Although Imam Yahya was anti-British and close to theAxis powers,to which the Kingdom of Italy belonged, II. He pursued aisolationistpolicy throughout World War II. Although it did not participate in the war, it faced famines in Yemen like Türkiye. In 1943, a major famine occurred in Yemen. Although it was suggested to the Imam to open the state's reserves, he did not accept it.

In 1944, the poet Muhammad Mahmud Al-Zubayri, nicknamed the "Father of the Revolution" in the North, returned to Yemen from Egypt, but soon fled to the south and founded the Great Yemen Assembly.[65]

In 1945, Yemen became a founding member of theArab League.

On March 4, 1946, President Harry Truman recognized the Kingdom of Yemen as a sovereign state in a letter to Imam Yahya, the king of Yemen.[66]

Ibrahim bin Yahya When his father, Imam Yahya, fell ill in the city of al-Rawda in 1946, he contacted several commanders and tribal leaders and arranged for the Dar Al-Hajar, al-Salalah in the city of Sana'a. He planned to seize power by capturing important points such as the Palace and arresting his father and brother Ali bin Yahya. He showed his plan to people he trusted, such as the poet Ahmed bin Muhammad al-Shami, but no one supported him.[67]Because he was worried that his plan would go to his father, he faked being sick and started rumors that he was going crazy and having epileptic seizures in order to escape from Yemen. Since doctors could not find a solution, they advised his father to be sent toEthiopia.They left Yemen with Professor Ahmed al-Burak, who knew English well, to be their translator. After staying inAsmarafor a while, they went to the city of Aden and Ibrahim joined theAhrar Party,which was established against his father's rule.[68]

On September 30, 1947, Yemen joined the United Nations. In the mid-20th century, mostYemeni Jewsleft Yemen and emigrated to the newly establishedIsrael.

In 1948, nearly 100 members of theFree Yemen Societywere arrested for distributing leaflets against authoritarian rule.[69]

A small expeditionary force was sent to the1948 Arab-Israeli War.[70]

Al-Waziri Coup

[edit]
Main article:Alwaziri coup
Abdullah al-Wazir,March 1948

In order to seize power, the Al-Wazirids ambushed Imam Yahya on 17 February 1948 in Savad Hizyaz, south of Sana'a.[71]Ali Kardey's group opened fire on the convoy, which had to stop because of a stone placed in the middle of the road, and Imam Yahya, his grandson and two soldiers were killed.[72]It was said that 50 bullets were found in Imam's body.[73]Then the Al-Waziris appointedAbdullah al-Wazirto rule the kingdom. Al-Wazir declared constitutionalism and established a provisional Shura Council. There were sixty prominent scholars and jurists in the parliament, led byİbrahim bin Yahya.

The new government was formed, headed by Ali bin Abdullah, who also included Ahmed Muhammad. Numan as the Minister of Agriculture, Sheikh Muhammad Ahmed Numan as the Minister of Internal Affairs, Muhammad Mahmud al-Zubari as the Minister of Education and Judge Abdullah Al-Agbari as the Minister of State, Hussein Abdul Qadir as the Minister of Defense, Servant Galib al-Wajih as the Minister of Finance, Judge Ahmed al-Agbari as the Minister of Education. Carafi took office as Minister of Economy and Mining and Mr. Ahmed al-Mutaa as Minister of Trade and Industry. Prince Ali bin Yahya Hamideddin was appointed as Minister of State and Judge. Hasan al-Omari was appointed Minister of State.

Sana'a, withBab al-Yamanvisible in the background

"Our father, Imam Yahya Hamideddin, passed away. Ahmed al-Wazir was elected imam and I am the chairman of the Council," written by Ibrahim bin Yahya to Cairo newspapers from Aden. The telegram was sent. Abdullah bin Yahya, who was in London at the time of the coup, denied his father's death and added cryptically: "The circumstances are complex and it is understandable that some exaggerated news is coming out of Yemen."[74]

This coup was not welcomed by Arab countries. Especially the Saudis and the remaining Arab kings did not recognize the new government. After the coup, his sonAhmad bin Yahyatraveled around North Yemen, gathered the tribes and Saudi Arabia behind him, and besieged Sana'a with the tribes he gathered.[75]He took control of the city a few weeks later. He allowed the tribes he took behind him to plunder the capital. The sack of Sana'a lasted seven days and is assumed to have involved around 250,000 tribesmen.[73]On 8 April 1948, Abdullah al-Wazir was executed by beheading. Approximately 5000 people died during the coup.[76]

George Washington UniversityAccording to Professor of Political Science and International Relations Bernard Reich, Imam Yahya, like his ancestors, could have done better and organized the Zaydi tribes in the northern plateaus against the Turks and British invaders, uniting Yemen and turning it into another cemetery.[77]

Ahmed bin Yahya period (1948-1962)

[edit]
Further information:Ahmad bin Yahya

After Imam Yahya was killed in the coup in 1948[78]son of ImamAhmed bin Yahyacame to power. His reign was marked by renewed friction with the United Kingdom over the British presence in the south, which stood in the way of its aspirations for increased development, openness and the creation ofGreater Yemen.Ahmed bin Yahya was a little more forward-thinking and more open to foreign relations than his father. Yet his regime, like his father's, wasautocratic;His approval was required even in the most ordinary situations.[79]Due to Ahmed bin Yahya's strictness and fierceness, the Yemenis described him asAhmed Ya Jinah(أحمد يا جناه) at that time, and because of this trait, his father was the one who appointed him. He gave him the task of suppressing the rebellions – especially in Hashid and Tihame.[80]

Ahmed bin Yahya, like his father Imam Yahya, had the idea of a Greater Yemen.[79]In the 1950s, after not recognizing British rule in Southern Arabia, he established a British-Ottoman border that served to separate Yemen from the Aden Protectorate. A series of border clashes took place along theViolet Line.[81]The British won the conflict.

In 1952, Imam Ahmed banned listening to the radio in public places.

In March 1955, a coup by a group of military officers and two of Ahmed's brothers deposed the king for a time. However, the coup was quickly suppressed. Ahmed bin Yahya faced increasing pressure from theEgyptianPresidentGamal Abdel Nasser,who was supported byArab nationalistsandpan-Arabists,and in April 1956 He also signed a mutual defense agreement with Egypt. In March 1958, Yemen joined theUnited Arab States.However, this confederation disintegrated shortly after Syria withdrew from theUnited Arab Republicin September 1961 and from the United Arab States in December 1961. After these events, relations between Yemen and Egypt deteriorated.

In 1959, theSoviet Red Cross and Red Crescent Societysent 10,000 tons of wheat to help Yemen overcome the effects of drought.

North Yemen Civil War (1962-1970)

[edit]
Main article:North Yemen Civil War
State of the war in 1967
A royalist camp in Yemen in 1962
Expeditionary Egyptian Troops in the North Yemen Civil War

Imam Ahmed died in September 1962 and was succeeded by his sonMuhammad al-Badr.Inspired by Nasser's Free Officers movement, Egyptian-trained officers led by the commander of the royal guard, Abdullah al-Sallal, deposed Muhammad al-Badr the year he came to power, took control of Sanaa, and founded theYemen Arab Republic.This incident sparked theNorth Yemen Civil War.The Imam then fled to theSaudi Arabiaborder and launched a counter-attack with the support of the Zaidi tribes in the north to regain control, which soon escalated the civil war.[82]

Red Cross delegate Andre Rocher with Prince Abdullah bin Al-Hassan

Soviets recognized theYemen Arab Republicimmediately after these events, on September 29, 1962. Saudi Arabia andJordanbegan to support the monarchists. On October 5, 1962, Prince Hassan established a royalist government in exile in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. There were 55,000 Egyptian soldiers and 3,000 Republicans against the Kingdom Army of 40,447 people.[83]Later, as he increased the number of soldiers to 130,000, he accelerated his loss in theSix Day War.The Royalists made an agreement with the Yemeni tribes to reduce the numerical superiority of the Republicans, and by 1965 the Royalists had increased to approximately 220,000 people. Egypt began usingchemical weaponsin late 1965.[84]On December 11, 1966, two people died and thirty-five people were injured due to fifteen tear gas bombs. On January 5, 1967, 140 people died and 130 people were injured in the gas attack on Kitaf village, the headquarters of Prince Hasan bin Yahya. After these events, the United Kingdom and the United States put pressure on Egypt. Egypt did not accept the allegations and suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused bynapalm,not gas. TheRed Crosswas alarmed and issued a statement expressing concern in Geneva on 2 June. TheUniversity of BernInstitute of Forensic Medicine, based on the report of the Red Cross, concluded that the gas was probably halogen derivatives –phosgene,mustard gas,lewisite,chlorideorcyanogen bromide-. Gas attacks stopped 3 weeks after the Six-Day War. An estimated 1,500 people died and 2,000 were injured due to chemical attacks. Conflicts continued until 1967, when Egyptian troops withdrew. By 1968, after a final royalist siege of Sana'a, an agreement was reached with the Saudis at the Islamic conference in 1970, and the first permanent constitution was adopted on December 30, 1970, consolidating the Republican regime.[85][86]More than 100,000 people died on both sides during the conflict. Egyptian historians call this civil war "Egypt's Vietnam War" due to the guerrilla warfare tactics used by the monarchists.

Instability and decline

[edit]

Imam Yahyawas assassinated in an unsuccessfulcoup d'état in 1948,but his son, ImamAhmad bin Yahya,regained power several months later. His reign was marked by growing development and openness, as well as renewed friction with the United Kingdom over the British presence in the south, which stood in the way of his aspirations to create aGreater Yemen.Imam Ahmad was slightly more forward-thinking than his father and was more open to foreign contacts. Nonetheless, his regime, like his father's, was autocratic and semi-medieval in character; even the most mundane measures required his personal approval.[87]

In March 1955, a coup by a group of officers and two of Ahmad's brothers briefly deposed the king but was quickly suppressed. Ahmad faced growing pressures, supported by theArab nationalistandpan-Arabistobjectives of the President ofEgypt,Gamal Abdel Nasser,and, in April 1956, he signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. In March 1958, Yemen joined theUnited Arab Republic(a federation of Egypt andSyriaformed in February 1958) in aconfederationknown as theUnited Arab States.However, this confederation was dissolved in December 1961, soon after Syria withdrew from the United Arab Republic and the United Arab States in September 1961. Relations between Egypt and Yemen subsequently deteriorated.

Imam Ahmad died in September 1962 and was succeeded by his son, Crown PrinceMuhammad al-Badr,whose reign was brief. Egyptian-trained military officers inspired by Nasser and led by the commander of the royal guard,Abdullah as-Sallal,deposed him the same year he was crowned, took control of Sana'a, and created theYemen Arab Republic(YAR). This sparked theNorth Yemen Civil Warand created a new front in theArab Cold War,in which Egypt assisted the YAR with troops and supplies to combat forces loyal to the imamate, while the monarchies ofSaudi ArabiaandJordansupported Badr's royalist forces in opposing the newly formed republic. Conflict continued periodically until 1967 when Egyptian troops were withdrawn. By 1968, following a final royalist siege of Sana'a, most of the opposing leaders had reached a reconciliation, and Saudi Arabia recognized the republic in 1970.

Politics

[edit]
Main articles:Politics of Yemen,Imams of Yemen,andImamate

The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen is aunitary statewhereabsolute monarchyis implemented. The Zaydis, who were in power, had the understanding ofimamate.Because of the understanding of imamate,Imams of Yemenwere interested in politics until theSeptember 26 Revolution.The assembly, consisting of 10 sayyids, elected the imam who would take over after the imam's death. Even during the periods when they were under the Mamluks and the Ottomans, their words were mentioned in Yemen, especially in the mountains of North Yemen, where the Zaydi sect was more concentrated. In 1926, Imam Yahya transitioned to the dynastic principle by appointing his son as crown prince. Thus, the imamship was passed from father to son, rather than those who met the conditions. This created hostility from some of theSayyidclass, who had an important role in the appointment of the imam in the Zaydi tradition.[47]

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article:Foreign relations of Yemen
Yemeni diplomats at the United Nations meeting, Paris, 1948

The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was a member of international organizations such asArab League(1945),United Nations(1947). Since South Yemen was under the auspices of the United Kingdom at that time, it represented the whole of Yemen.[88][2]

Harry S. Trumantalking toHassan bin Yahya

In line with its power, the Kingdom of Yemen often pursued a policy ofisolationist.[citation needed]It took steps to strengthen the newly established Yemen and gaininternational recognitionfor its state.[citation needed]On September 2, 1926, Yemen was recognized internationally and diplomatic contacts with the Soviet Union took place inAnkara.Mussoliniestablished a partnership relationship with Imam Yahya by signing theSana'a Treatyin 1926.[89]Thus, theKingdom of Italyaccepted Imam Yahya as the king of all Yemen.[90][91]In addition, it provided diplomatic support against Saudi Arabia, which had ambitions over the Kingdom of Yemen.[91]On October 15, 1937, this treaty was extended again. Relations were also developed with the Soviet Union by signing theSoviet-Yemen Friendship and Trade Treaty.[92][93]The northern border was determined by signing the Taif Treaty with Saudi Arabia in 1934 and other relations such as trade were developed.[94]The Taif Treaty would be renewed every 20 years and its validity would be confirmed in 1995.[95][96]

Relations between the United Kingdom, which controlled Aden, and the Kingdom of Yemen, which wanted to control all of Yemen, were generally tense.[82]Even Imam Yahya stated in his letters that "the British", He wrote, "their real desire and main goal is to disintegrate and disperse Islam, so that they can dominate us and make us slaves." was being done. After 1928, the aggressive policies carried out against the British were changed andSan'a Friendship Treatywas signed with the United Kingdom.[97][98]An aggressive attitude towards the United Kingdom was not taken until 1948. This attitude changed during the reign of Ahmed bin Yahya, and in the 1950s he declared that he did not recognize the sovereignty of the United Kingdom in Southern Arabia and entered into border conflicts.[citation needed]

Muhammad al-Badr and the Chinese diplomat signing the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, 1958

On March 4, 1946, the president of the United StatesHarry Trumanrecognized the Kingdom of Yemen as a sovereign state in a letter to Imam Yahya.[citation needed]In addition, relations with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China were strengthened. A lot of aid was provided by these countries. A double-header occurred after the September 26 Revolution turned into a civil war. The Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China and Egypt recognized the Yemen Arab Republic, while Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom recognized the Mutawakkillite Kingdom of Yemen.[99]Since Saudi Arabia provided budgetary support to the royalists, they became dependent on them. At the end of the agreement made in 1970, everyone recognized the Yemen Arab Republic.[citation needed]

Administrative divisions

[edit]
Main article:Administrative divisions of Yemen
Further information:Governorates of YemenandDistricts of Yemen

The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen had a unitary structure in terms of administration. Local governments have limited powers. The largest administrative units of the country areliwas(lit. 'Sanjak') and according to the latest regulation, there are 8 livas. These livas are reserved formikhlaf.The capital of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen wasSan'auntil 1948, after which it becameTaiz.

The Ottoman Empire leftYemen Eyaletto Imam Yahya in 1918. While Imam Yahya continued the same structure, he made some changes. First, he established the Hajjah sanjak by combining the Hajur district, the es-Sharfin region, Kahlan and Ahnum district. Muhsin bin Nasser, who started a rebellion after capturing Habbur and al-Suda, appointed his eldest son Ahmed bin Yahya as his leader after Shayban. After the Imam's authority spread,MidiandAbsregions were conquered. In 1922, he separated the Qaim andIbbregion from theTaizsanjak and assigned it to theDhamarsanjak and connected it directly to Sana'a. Afterward, he turnedSaadainto a separate sanjak and established the sanjak of "Liwa al-Sham". The Zabid region was attached to the Dhamar sanjak andAbdullah al-Wazirwas appointed as its head. When Abdullah al-Wazir left for another job, a separate sanjak was made in 1938 by adding land from the Taiz sanjak to the Imam Yahya Ibb region. He appointedHassan bin Yahyaas his leader. It was added to the sanjak of Ibb by taking a part from Hübeyşiyye and RiyaşiyyemikhlaffromRadadistrict.

During the reign of Ahmed bin Yahya, he founded the Mahwit sanjak by uniting the Kawkaban, Tavila, Hafaş, and Melhan regions. Finally, Yemen was divided into 8 sanjaks.

  1. Liwa of Sana'a
  2. Liwa of Dhamar
  3. Liwa of Taiz
  4. Liwa of Ibb
  5. Liwa of Hudaydah
  6. Liwa of Al-Mahwit
  7. Liwa of Sham (Saada)
  8. Liwa of Hajjah

Army

[edit]
Main article:Yemeni Armed Forces
Sana Military School

The Yemeni army consists of two parts: the Ground Forces and the Air Force. While some of the army was paid professional soldiers, the rest were tribal soldiers called in during wartime.

Before Yemen became independent, it had the authority to govern the tribes thanks to the prestige of the Imams, but these troops were not regular. The first regular Yemeni army dates back to the late 19th century, when the Ottoman Empire began recruiting tribal soldiers to form four gendarmerie battalions and three cavalry regiments.

A Yemen cannon in the 1920s

After the Ottoman Empire withdrew from Yemeni territory and Imam Yahya had full control in Yemen, Yemeni brigades in the Ottoman Empire, including the Taiz Brigade at first, began to side with Imam Yahya.[47]Remnants of the Ottoman period Knowing that the Yemeni Brigades would not be enough to defend Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, Imam Yahya increased the size of his army. 8 brigades were established: Sana'a, Dhamar, Taiz, Ibb, Hudaydah, Al Mahwit, Liwa al Sham (Saada) and Hajjah.

Land Forces

[edit]

Since the Kingdom of Yemen was a relatively small country, and after the Ottoman withdrawal from Yemen in 1918, a lot of confusion occurred due to attempts to reform and develop the army without having a sufficient level of officers and doctrine. Theoretical rather than practical aspects dominated the training, and some officers were promoted based on their closeness to Imam Yahya, not on their intelligence or education. It caused a flaw in education because some of them tried to give military training even though they had no military experience.[100]

Although it is complicated, Imam Yahya had a large army compared to his region due to his military experience and authority in the region.[101][circular reference]The Land Army is divided into 5 branches.[102][page needed]

Ukfa Troops
  • Imamate Guards (Ukfa troops):These were military units assigned to protect the Imam. To be accepted into this union, one had to show outstanding success and prove that he was loyal to the Imam. It consisted of an average of 5,000 soldiers.[103]
Military march of the Victorious Army
  • Victorious Army:It was founded in 1919, and its first soldiers were former Yemeni soldiers of the Ottoman Empire. When the army was first established; The arsenals were filled with a large number of approximately 400,000 rifles of various types, in addition to light and heavy artillery batteries of different calibers and weights. Every year, each tribe had to send a specified number of soldiers to the state. Each tribe contained a scribe who reported the behavior, rewards, and misdeeds of the tribe's members. If a soldier stole or left the army without permission, the tribal leader had to compensate the imam for the damage.[101][circular reference]In addition to subjugating rebellious tribes, carrying out military operations and protecting imams, princes and public officials in the state, the army also carries out operations such as maintaining authority and collecting taxes.[101][circular reference][104][105][106]
Tribesmen in Sana'a
A drawing ofAli Nasser Al-QardaiAl-Muradi. TheZaydiimam,Yahya Hamid Al-Din,wanted to get rid of him, so he forced him into a battle with theEnglishin Shabwa, so Al-Muradi returned and killed the imam in 1948.[107]
  • Defense Army:It was established in 1937 due to the inadequacy of the Victorious Army. After losing a significant part of Yemen following the war with the Saudis and the British, Imam Yahya came to the conclusion that his army needed modernization and better training conditions. After the failure of the reform attempts in the Victorious Army and the emergence of complaints among the officers, and under the pressure of the intellectuals, Imam Yahya decided to "establish a new army, which is a regular Defense Army based on compulsory service for all gun owners, regardless of age." The following is the case: After the fall of theKingdom of HejazLieutenant General Hasan Tahsin al-F akîr came to Yemen and assisted Imam Yahya as a military advisor from 1930 to 1944. Defense during aid He played a major role in establishing the Army.[c]Unlike the Victorious Army, training was based on experience rather than theory, but this training period was still not enough for the soldiers to master military training, combat skills and military training.[108]It consisted of all Yemenis with compulsory military service. After being drafted into the army, they received training periodically for 10 years.
  • National Army:An independent army similar to the Victorious and Defending armies. Its commander was Colonel Muhammed Hamid.
  • Barani Army (Tribal Army):They were irregular units that served voluntarily. It consisted of infantry and cavalry, who usually served for 1–2 years and brought their own rifles and supplies. Yemen has always relied primarily on tribal supporters in its wars against its rivals. These tribes generally live in the northern, northwestern and eastern regions. These types of warriors are classified as "traditional national armies", which are led by tribal chiefs and have no regular formation.[109]

Air Force

[edit]
Main article:Yemen Air Force
Yemen Mutawakkilite Kingdom Fighter Plane
Yemen Air Force Medallion
Plan of Junkers A35 acquired by Yemen
The first group of aviation students affiliated with the Yemeni army that were sent to Italy in 1926.

With the help of the Germans and Italians, the Yemeni Air Force was established in 1926. Imam Yahya contacted the Kingdom of Italy to provide aircraft to his country because theRoyal Air Forcebombed Yemen during the British-Yemeni border conflicts in the 1920s and Yemen could not respond to this since it did not have any aircraft or anti-aircraft guns. In January 1926, a contract was made with Italy for the delivery of 6 aircraft, the first 3 of which would arrive in April. In 1926, 12 Yemenis were sent to Italy to receive flight training, and a flight school was established in Yemen with the help of an Italian team. After it was determined that the planes coming from Italy were in bad condition, Imam Yahya complained about this situation to the Italians. After this situation, Italy agreed to provide better aircraft to Yemen. One of the better planes arrived in Yemen in August. In the same year, he purchasedJunkersdesignedJunkers A 35andJunkers F 13aircraft from Germany. The Junkers A35 plane delivered to Yemen crashed less than two months later, killing all three crew members. Since border conflicts with the British began immediately after these events, Imam Yahya had to stop his efforts to establish an air force, and all his planes were banned.[110]1940 At the end of the 1960s, the movement to establish an air force was revived. Second-handJunkers Ju 52/3mtransport aircraft from Lebanon,C64 Norsemanfrom Egypt,Douglas C-47 Skytrainaircraft from the Republic of Italy Retrieved.[111]In 1955, 2 USAAF AT-6C training aircraft were donated by Saudi Arabia to the Mutawakkili Kingdom of Yemen. An arms agreement was signed with theSocialist Republic of Czechoslovakiain 1957 for 24Ilyushin Il-10attack aircraft.[112]However, due to the lack of support materials and spare parts, none of these planes could be flown.[d]In the same period, 2Mil Mi-1and 4Mil Mi-4helicopters from the Soviet Union;Ilyushin Il-14transport aircraft were purchased and a Soviet flight school was opened in Yemen. Flight schools were equipped with 10 Czechoslovak-madeZlín Z-26training aircraft.[113]

Army Modernization

[edit]
Artillery Training camp in 1958

When the Kingdom of Yemen was first established, the Ottoman Empire invested more in the Balkans than in the Arabian Peninsula and Anatolia, apart from agriculture. There was nothing. The weapons they stole from the Ottomans[114]and they had no weapons other than the rifles they bought from the Kingdom of Italy and the United Kingdom. For this, Imam Yahya ordered the establishment of an ammunition factory in the early 1920s with the help ofYugoslav(or German) andAustria.

After the defeat in the Saudi-Yemeni war in 1934, the Imam saw the need to modernize and expand the armed forces. From Italy; He purchased 6 light tanks, 2,000 rifles, four anti-aircraft guns, 4 cannons, and some communication equipment. A few rifles and communication equipment were received from the Kingdom of Iraq. Italy also opened a flight school in Sana'a.[115]

al-Badr inspecting one of the tanks

Despite the pressure exerted by Western countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, on the armament of Yemen, Imam Muhammad al-Badr was determined to strengthen the Yemeni army. An agreement was signed with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser to bring some military experts and officers from Egypt. In addition, theEastern Blocsigned agreements with some countries, especially the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and China, on the supply of weapons to Yemen, their maintenance, and the training of Yemeni soldiers. As a result of the agreements, 34 light tanks, 50 100mm caliber tanks, 100 field guns, 70 personnel carriers, one armored vehicle, and 70 transport trucks were purchased.[116]This agreement is considered a big step in the history of the Yemeni army. These reforms continued until the revolution broke out on September 26, 1962:

  • In 1957, the Military Academy was reopened and new military schools were opened in Sana'a and Taiz.
  • In 1958, the Aviation College, Petty Officer School, Artillery Training camp, and the new Military Academy were established.
  • In 1959, the Police College was established in Taiz.[e]
  • Instructors were brought for the soldiers from the Soviet Union and Egypt.
  • New unions established:
    • Al-Badr Regiment:The first armored unit in the Yemeni army.
    • National Army:An army similar to the Victorious and Defensive army.
    • Yemen command:A general command subordinate to al-Badr for direct control of the army.

Army size before the revolution

[edit]

Before the North Yemen Civil War, the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen had a regular army of 40,447 men of various ranks.

  • Victorious Army:22,090 personnel
  • Defense Army:15,990 personnel
  • National Army:1,396 personnel
  • al-Badr Regiment:971 personnel

Geography

[edit]
Main article:Geography of Yemen
Yemen map

The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was anAsiancountry. The country, which remained in southwestern Arabia, had the Red Sea in the west,Saudi Arabiain the north,Aden Protectorateunder British protection in the south,Aden Colony,Omanin the east, Bab-el-Mandeb strait in the southwest. The borders of the country were unclear, except for those determined in theTreaty of Taifand theTreaty of Friendship to Sanaa.[117]

The territory of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen roughly resembles a square shape. It is 450 kilometers long and 490 kilometers wide. 17° and 13° with northern parallels 43° and 45° was located between the eastern meridians. The country consisted of approximately 195,000 km2squares. It consisted almost entirely of land, with lakes making up an insignificant part.[117]

The mountains of Yemen are one of the highest mountains in the world. The plateaus in Yemen are the wettest areas in the region. Annual rainfall was over 22 inches. Most of the precipitation occurred during the summer months. Because it is a mountainous area, the temperature could approach freezing during the winter months. There are no permanent rivers, streams, lakes, etc. in Yemen. did not have. Most of the flash floods that frequently occurred in the region flowed into the Red Sea.[118]Desert climate in the country It was effective and dust and sand storms were seen throughout the year.

Demographics

[edit]

Religion

[edit]
Main article:Religion in Yemen
North Yemen sect map
Zaydi
Sunni

Zaydis of the northern highlands have been politically and culturally dominant in Yemen for centuries. The existence of the Zaydis, which has continued until today since they moved to the Yemen region, which has a unique socio-cultural structure, and established a state, has been interrupted from time to time, following a politically ambiguous and unstable course. The first rebellions of the Sunni population, who did not accept the religious-political rule of the Zaydis, took place during the period of the Yemeni imamAl-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya.[119]

The sect of the areas controlled by the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was approximately ~55% Zaydi and ~45% Sunni.[citation needed]

Yemeni Jews

[edit]
Main article:Yemeni Jews
Yemeni Jewish jeweler and his child Sana'a, 1937
Jewish family reading the psalms after lunch on the Sabbath

Judaism was the firstAbrahamic religionto come to Yemen. Christianity was the majority religion in Yemen until its introduction to Islam. Until 1948, approximately 50,000 Yemeni Jews lived in the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.[120]The Jews were exiled during the reign of Hasan, but later, due to economic reasons, the Jews who were craftsmen were settled in separate neighborhoods, isolated from the city and Muslims.[citation needed]In the late 18th Century, the Imams of Yemen enacted a law known as theOrphans' Decree,based on their legal interpretations.[121]

The Orphan Edict was ignored during Ottoman rule (1872–1918).[122]But in 1921, when Imam Yahya became fully dominant in Yemen, he reinstated this law.[121]British historianTudor Parfittlikened this situation to "the brutal measures that introduced the compulsory conscription of Jewish children into the Tsarist army in Russia". At first, the edict was not implemented by the authorities as much as it could have been in the Ottoman Empire. In some places, the authorities turned a blind eye to the children running away and hiding, but since the imam was insistent on this issue, troops were sent to search for the escaped children in more central locations. Jewish community leaders suspected of hiding Jewish children were arrested and tortured in prisons.

One of the important people who was converted to Islam with the Orphan Edict wasAbdurrahman el-Eryani,who was claimed to be of Jewish origin by Dorit Mizrahi, one of the writers of Mishpaha newspaper.[123]She was allegedly born Zekharia Hadad in 1910 to a Jewish family inIbb.After his parents died due to an epidemic when he was eight years old, he and his 5-year-old sister were protected by the Orphan Edict. He was given to separate protective families with his brother and renamed Abdurrahman al-Eryani. Eryani later served as minister of religious endowments in the Yemen Arab Republic, becoming the only civilian to lead North Yemen.[124]However, an interview by YemenOnline, an online newspaper, with several members of the al-Eryani family In the interview, he denied the claim that Abdurrahman al-Eryani was Jewish. According to them, it is a distortion put forward by Israeli journalist Haolam Hazeh in 1967. Zekharia Haddad is actually Abdulrahim al-Haddat, the half-brother and bodyguard of Abdurrahman el-Eryani.[125]

Jews were consideredimpureand therefore Jews were forbidden from touching a Muslim or Muslim's food.[126]

Economy

[edit]

Transportation

[edit]
Main article:Transportation in Yemen
Vizier Hasan bin Yahya driving a tractor in Italy in 1953.
A car license plate issued by the Kingdom of Yemen

Transportation has always been challenging and long due to Yemen's deserts and mountainous terrain. Except for a few roads built by the Ottoman Empire after its arrival in Yemen, there were not many roads in the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The repair of these roads was usually done by prisoners of war or prisoners. Although the Ottoman Empire brought some cars to Yemen, they took most cars with them when troops withdrew from Yemen in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros. The first automobile to arrive in Yemen was whenBrigadier General Yakupbrought aFordmodel automobile as a gift while visiting Imam Yahya in 1923. Although this automobile was not welcomed at first because there were only horse-drawn carriages in Yemen until then, when Imam Yahya declared that the use of this foreign invention was permissible, princes, high-ranking officials, rich merchants, and high-ranking soldiers began to buy automobiles. The use of automobiles is prohibited except on main roads and ring roads. Heavy fines were imposed on those who used it. Until the early 1950s, only those with important government jobs and European merchants in Hudaydah had cars.[127][128]

Imam Yahya established a national transportation and transportation company for the villagers who went to the cities to sell goods and for transportation, but the expeditions of this company did not cover the whole of Yemen. In more mountainous regions where there were no expeditions, transportation was generally provided by caravans consisting of camels, mules, and donkeys, via paths. The bases of various brigades such as Liva al-Sham, Haci, Ma'rib, and Ibb were established at the points where these paths meet. Thus, the caravans could be protected from bandits.

During the Ottoman Empire, a railway connecting Hudaydah and Sana'a was built. While some repairs were being made in the port of Hudaydah by the French in 1908, an 8 km railway was built, but after the port was bombed by the Italians in 1912, it was closed to the railways in Yemen. Not much attention has been paid. Following the 1934 Sana'a Friendship Treaty, the United Kingdom presented Imam Yahya with the idea of connecting Aden and Sana'a by railway. According to Imam Yahya, "their real desire and main goal is to disintegrate and disperse Islam, so that they can dominate us and make us slaves".[129]

[edit]
  • A photograph of the Yemen Flag taken at the UN on September 20, 1947
  • Soviet planes that were not used because there were no pilots to fly them.
  • Imamate throne
  • Photo of a Yemen Airlines plane in the 1950s
    Photo of aYemen Airlinesplane in the 1950s
  • A weaver woman receiving weapons training during theNorth Yemen Civil War
  • Commander Muhammed Şaban and the Royal Guards, Taiz
  • A view from Sana'a Military School in 1958
    A view from Sana'a Military School in 1958
  • A Yemeni house in 1912
    A Yemeni house in 1912

Postage stamps

[edit]
  • Postage stamp commemorating the road connecting Hodeidah to Sana'a
    Postage stamp commemorating the road connecting Hodeidah to Sana'a
  • A postage stamp made for Ahmad bin Yahya
    A postage stamp made forAhmad bin Yahya
  • A stamp related to Yemen's accession to the United Nations
    A stamp related to Yemen's accession to the United Nations
  • United Arab States
    United Arab States
  • A postage stamp related to the North Yemen Civil War
    A postage stamp related to the North Yemen Civil War
  • A postage stamp related to Hasan bin Yahya
    A postage stamp related to Hasan bin Yahya
  • Kingdom of Yemen postage stamp
    Kingdom of Yemen postage stamp
  • A stamp regarding Yemen's accession to the United Nations
    A stamp regarding Yemen's accession to the United Nations
  • Postage stamp commemorating the Mujahideen
    Postage stamp commemorating theMujahideen
  • A stamp made for Muhammad al-Badr
    A stamp made for Muhammad al-Badr
  • A postage stamp related to the North Yemen Civil War
    A postage stamp related to the North Yemen Civil War
  • Dar al-Hajar, the residence of Imam Yahya
    Dar al-Hajar,the residence of Imam Yahya

Flags

[edit]
  • Plain red flag (1918–23)
    Plain red flag (1918–23)
  • Flag with shahada (1923–1927)
    Flag withshahada(1923–1927)
  • Flag vairant with thicker stars (1927–1970)
    Flag vairant with thicker stars (1927–1970)
  • Yemen Kingdom Air Force flag
    Yemen Kingdom Air Force flag

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^refers to the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom.
  2. ^see. He entered ed-Dali in 1927 to announce that he did not recognize theViolet Line
  3. ^Born, raised and educated in Damascus; A commander who did military service in the Ottoman army
  4. ^The planes that could not be flown were most likelyThisare the planes in the photo.
  5. ^Policemen who graduated from this College were the first policemen of Yemen.

References

[edit]
  1. ^Al-Deen, Maysaa (3 May 2022).Taiz in Power.Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies. p. 3.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2023.Retrieved9 May2023.
  2. ^ab"Yemen".United Nations.Archivedfrom the original on 31 July 2022.Retrieved9 May2023.
  3. ^Jawād ʻAlī (1968) [Digitized 17 February 2007].الـمـفـصـّل في تـاريـخ العـرب قبـل الإسـلام[Detailed history of Arabs before Islam] (in Arabic). Vol. 1. Dār al-ʻIlm li-l-Malāyīn. p. 171.
  4. ^Neuwirth, Angelika; Sinai, Nicolai; Marx, Michael (2010).The Qur??n in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations Into the Qur??nic Milieu.Brill.ISBN978-90-04-17688-1.Archivedfrom the original on 5 February 2023.Retrieved5 February2023.
  5. ^Burrowes, Robert D. (2010).Historical Dictionary of Yemen.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 145.ISBN978-0-8108-5528-1
  6. ^Smith, William Robertson.Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia.p. 193.ISBN1-117-53193-7.He was worshiped by the Madhij and their allies at Jorash (Asir) in Northern Yemen
  7. ^"Yemen".web.archive.org.TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 13 February 2015. Archived fromthe originalon 13 February 2015.Retrieved16 April2022.
  8. ^"İslam Ansiklopedisi, Cengiz Tomar".Archivedfrom the original on 13 February 2015.Retrieved13 February2015.
  9. ^Beeston, A.F.L.; Ghul, M.A.; Müller, W.W.; Ryckmans, J. (1982).Sabaic Dictionary.University of Sanaa, YAR. p. 168.ISBN2-8017-0194-7
  10. ^Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov (2007).Enemies from the East?: V. S. Soloviev on Paganism, Asian Civilizations, and Islam.Northwestern University Press. p. 149.ISBN978-0-8101-2417-2
  11. ^Edward Balfour (1873).Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Commercial, Industrial and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures, Band 5.Printed at the Scottish & Adelphi presses. p. 240.
  12. ^Sharabi 1962: s. 243
  13. ^"An Ottoman-Arab city in Yemen: Yemen".Dergipark.Archivedfrom the original on 24 March 2020.Retrieved23 June2022.
  14. ^"Yemen Chronology".Worldstatesmen. Archived fromthe originalon 18 August 2002.Retrieved16 June2022.
  15. ^"Turkish traces in Yemen".web.archive.org.Ufuk Ötesi. 16 July 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2011.Retrieved16 April2022.
  16. ^Yémen – Géographie, religion, histoire, politics geographie-religion-histoire-et-politique/|publisher=Lecourrierdumaghrebetdelorient}}
  17. ^"Yemen in the First World War, Activities of Governor Mahmut Nedim Bey, Representative of the Ottoman Empire, in Yemen* - PDF Free Download".docplayer.biz.tr.Archived fromthe originalon 12 March 2023.Retrieved12 March2023.
  18. ^Turkish War in the First World War, ibid. p.591-592
  19. ^Selahattin Tansel, From Mudros to Mudanya -1, Prime Ministry Printing House, Ankara 1973, p. 63
  20. ^"Mütevekkil-Al-Ellah, Yahyâ Hamîdüddin".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam(in Turkish).Archivedfrom the original on 30 June 2022.Retrieved30 June2022.
  21. ^"Chronologie du Yémen en guerre".lesclesdumoyenorient.Archived fromthe originalon 26 October 2020.Retrieved22 June2022.
  22. ^Turkish War in the First World War, ibid.,p.595-599
  23. ^abTurkish War in the First World War, ibid, pp: 616-617
  24. ^"Ayşe Hür column dated 29 March 2015
  25. ^BOA. DH. KMS D: 53-1 G:76, (22.06.1919)
  26. ^(BEO,nr. 349609, 353194; Öke – Karaman, pp. 31-64)
  27. ^Yemen-Turkey Relations during the War of Independence/Imam Yahya-Mustafa Kemal Pasha Correspondence (Prof. Dr. Mim Kemal Öke)
  28. ^(Seyhun, p. 138; Ehiloğlu, p. 191-204)
  29. ^(ibid., p. 106).
  30. ^"Date, politics and beyond: Yemen file from past to present".Mepa News(in Turkish). 8 March 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 20 September 2022.Retrieved17 September2022.
  31. ^Clive LeatherdaleBritain and Saudi Arabia 1925-1939 The Imperial Oasis, 1983p. (London, Frank Cass
  32. ^Harold F. Jacob, Kings of Arabia: the rise and set of the Turkish Sovereignty in the Arabian Peninsula p.83-84
  33. ^"Yemen". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 22 September 2013
  34. ^History of Arabia,Encyclopædia Britannica(Macropædia Vol. 1).1979. pp. 1043–1051.
  35. ^اليمنية, الدولة العثمانية الجمهورية العربية."المملكة المتوكلية اليمنية".المعرفة(in Arabic). Archived fromthe originalon 12 May 2017.Retrieved23 June2022.
  36. ^Bernard Reich (1990).Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 508.ISBN0-313-26213-6.
  37. ^Nikshoy C. ChatterjiMuddle of the Middle East, Volume 1
  38. ^Paul Dresch (2000).A History of Modern Yemen.Cambridge University Press. p.org/details/historyofmoderny0000dres/page/34 34.ISBN0-521-79482-X.
  39. ^"Will Yemen Be Divided Again? 5126-will-yemen-be-divided-again/".United World International.UwiData. 28 August 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2021.Retrieved23 December2023.
  40. ^"حول تنكيل الإمام يحيى بقبائل صنعاء سنة 1922م".Archived fromthe originalon 30 July 2022.Retrieved23 December2023.
  41. ^"هكذا نكّل الإمام يحيى بقبائل صنعاء سنة 1922".اليمن الجمهوري(in Arabic). 22 October 2018.Retrieved30 July2022.[dead link]
  42. ^Willis, John M. (1934).Unmaking North and South: Cartographies of.ISBN4131071320.
  43. ^John M. Willis (2012)،Unmaking North and South: Cartographies of the Yemeni Past, 1857-1934، Columbia University Press، ص. 143،ISBN0-231-70131-4
  44. ^Bernard ReichPolitical Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africap.509 Greenwood Publishing Group, Jan 1, 1990
  45. ^Bernard Reich (1990).Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 509.ISBN0-313-26213-6.
  46. ^Clive Leatherdale (1983).1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis.Psychology Press. p. 140.ISBN0-7146-3220-1.
  47. ^abcCamberlin, Marie; Samouiller, Ségolène (1 July 2001)."Chronologie du Yémen contemporain (1904-1970)".Arabian Humanities. Revue internationale d'archéologie et de sciences sociales sur la péninsule Arabique/International Journal of Archeology and Social Sciences in the Arabian Peninsula(in French).9(9).doi:10.4000/cy.67.ISSN1248-0568.Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2022.Retrieved22 June2022.
  48. ^Paul DreschA History of Modern Yemenp.34
  49. ^ikshoy C. ChatterjiMuddle of the Middle East, Volume 1p.199
  50. ^Dictionary Of Modern Arab Historyp.379
  51. ^Michael Quentin Morton (2006)،In the Heart of the Desert: The Story of an Exploration Geologist and the Search for Oil in the Middle East، Green Mountain Press. 104،ISBN0-9552212-0-X
  52. ^"War talk in Arabia".Barrier Miner.16 November 1933.Retrieved4 September2022.
  53. ^"Britain Neutral".West Australian.9 May 1934.Retrieved4 September2022.
  54. ^Bernard Reich (1990).Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 509.ISBN978-0-313-26213-5.
  55. ^"المملكة المتوكلية اليمنية والاستعمار البريطاني".yemen-nic.info.Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2008.Retrieved23 June2022.
  56. ^"Yemen After the Withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the Field".Geography of Ideas(in Turkish).Retrieved30 June2022.[permanent dead link]
  57. ^"Victors in Yemen".Examiner.16 May 1934.Archivedfrom the original on 22 March 2023.Retrieved4 September2022.
  58. ^Kostiner, Joseph (1993-12-02).The Making of Saudi Arabia, 1916-1936: From Chieftaincy to Monarchical State.Oxford University Press. pp. 170, 171.ISBN978-0-19-536070-7
  59. ^Reid Sarkees, Meredith; Wayman, Frank (16 February 2010).Resort to War: 1816–2007.SAGE Publications.ISBN978-0-87289-434-1.Archivedfrom the original on 4 September 2022.Retrieved4 September2022.
  60. ^"Arabia".Sydney Morning Herald.9 May 1934.Archivedfrom the original on 27 December 2023.Retrieved4 September2022.
  61. ^ab"Arabain Affairs".Townsville Daily Bulletin.16 June 1934.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved4 September2022.
  62. ^"Saudi and Yemen".Mercury.16 June 1934.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved4 September2022.
  63. ^"Saudi Arabia p.129":Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm By Peter W. Wilson p.129
  64. ^"'File 6/27 Foreign Interests: Sa'udi-Yemen Dispute' [42r] (83/174) ".Qatar Digital Library.31 May 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2022.Retrieved4 September2022.
  65. ^"Muhammad Mahmoud al-Zubairi: The Conscience of Yemen".Al-Madaniya Magazine.30 November 2017. Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2019.Retrieved17 April2022.
  66. ^"Yemen – Countries – Office of the Historian".history.state.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 28 July 2022.Retrieved30 July2022.
  67. ^موسوعة الاعلام ، د. 21 ، إبراهيم بن يحيى بن محمد بن يحيى حميد الدين.
  68. ^Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence By F. Gregory Gause. p.58.ISBN978-0-231-07044-7Columbia University Press
  69. ^"مة".اليمن الجمهوري(in Arabic). 18 October 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 18 October 2021.Retrieved13 March2023.
  70. ^Morris, Benny (2008),?id=CC7381HrLqcC&pg=PA332&lpg=PA3321948: The First Arab-Israeli WarArchived26 June 2016 at theWayback Machine,Yale University Press,p.205, New Haven,ISBN978-0-300-12696-9.
  71. ^"CSP - Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946-2012".web.archive.org.21 January 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 8 March 2021.Retrieved20 March2023.
  72. ^"Marib: A Yemeni Government Stronghold Increasingly Vulnerable to Houthi Advances".Sana'a Center For Strategic Studies.22 October 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 1 November 2020.Retrieved20 March2023.
  73. ^abMackintosh-Smith, Tim (2000).Yemen: The Unknown Arabia.New York: The Overlook Press. pp. 93–99.
  74. ^"Yemen: The Eighth End".Time.26 January 1948.ISSN0040-781X.Archivedfrom the original on 24 November 2022.Retrieved20 March2023.
  75. ^"Tribes and Politics in Yemen"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 September 2022.Retrieved20 March2023.
  76. ^Leader, Stefan H. (April 1983). "World Military and Social Expenditures, 1982 by Ruth Leger Sivard (World Priorities [Leesburg, Va.]; 44 pp.; $4.00 [paper])".Worldview.26(4): 21–22.doi:10.1017/s0084255900040262.
  77. ^Bernard Reich (1990).Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 510.ISBN978-0-313-26213-5.
  78. ^"History of Yemen – Key Figures in Yemen's history".nationsonline.org.Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2011.Retrieved30 July2022.
  79. ^ab"Yemen: After Ahmad the Devil".Time.5 October 1962.ISSN0040-781X.Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2022.Retrieved16 April2022.
  80. ^"في مثل هذا اليوم قتل أحمد حميد الدين ليطوى بذلك سجل الإمامة في اليم ن وإلى الأبد".yeninews.net(in Arabic).Retrieved21 July2022.[permanent dead link]
  81. ^Rabasa, Angel; Boraz, Steven; Chalk, Peter; Cragin, Who; Karasik, Theodore W. (2007).Ungoverned Territories: Understanding and Reducing Terrorism Risks.Rand Corporation.ISBN978-0-8330-4152-4.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2020.Retrieved16 June2022.
  82. ^abLong, David E.; Reich, Bernard (1995).The government and politics of the Middle East and North Africa.Westview Press (3rd edition). p. 153.ISBN978-0-8133-2125-7.
  83. ^Ali, Abdullah Saleh.Yemen Army: North Yemen Civil War, Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.
  84. ^"Kingdom of Yemen/Yemen Arab Republic/North Yemen (1948-1990)".University of Central Arkansas.Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2021.Retrieved2 July2022.
  85. ^"History of Yemen – Key Figures in Yemen's history".nationsonline.org.Nations Online. Archived fromthe originalon 24 June 2011.Retrieved23 June2022.
  86. ^Halliday. 1975: p. 95 vdd
  87. ^Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2000).Yemen: The Unknown Arabia.New York: The Overlook Press. pp. 93–99.
  88. ^"Arab League".Encyclopaedia Britannica.3 July 2024.Archivedfrom the original on 8 February 2023.Retrieved7 August2024.
  89. ^"The foreign office and Anglo-Italian involvement in the Red Sea and Arabia, 1925-28".7 January 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 12 July 2017.Retrieved16 April2022.
  90. ^"Newspaper".Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved23 December2023.
  91. ^abText inLeague of Nations Treaty Series,vol. 67, pp. 384-391.
  92. ^"April 17, 2015 22".ricolor.org.Archived fromthe originalon 27 December 2015.
  93. ^"Республика Йемен".2 February 2008.[permanent dead link]
  94. ^"The Treaty of Taif, 1934".Archived fromthe originalon 5 February 2012.Retrieved5 February2012.
  95. ^"Peace Negotiations in Arabian War".Argus.14 May 1934.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved20 March2023.
  96. ^"The Treaty of Taif, 1934".Archived fromthe originalon 5 February 2012.Retrieved5 February2012.
  97. ^"معاهدة الصداقة والتعاون المتبادل بين اليمن وبريطانيا 11 ف براير 1934 م".yemen-nic.info.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2017.Retrieved21 June2022.
  98. ^"Historical Stations in the Path of a Revolution".Archivedfrom the original on 28 December 2014.Retrieved21 June2022.
  99. ^Ismael, Tareq Y.; Ishmael, Jacqueline S.; Jaber, Kamel Abu (1991).Politics and government in the Middle East and North Africa.University Press of Florida. p. 427.ISBN978-0-8130-1043-4.
  100. ^تأسيس الجيـش اليمنـي ودوره العسكـري والسياسـي 1337- 1382هـ/ 1918- 1962م ، رسالة ماجستير ، أحمد علي أحمد حسن الزراعي ، جامعة صنعاء ، الباب الأول:تأسيس الجيش النظامي وتنظيماته الإدارية والعسكرية ، الفصل الأول: الجيـش المظفر النظامي ، ص 24
  101. ^abc"القوات المسلحة اليمنية"[Yemeni Armed Forces].areq.net(in Arabic).Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved25 June2022.
  102. ^Ahmed Ali, Ahmed Hassan al-Zari.The establishment of the Yemeni army and its military and political role 1918–1962 AD(in Arabic).
  103. ^1940-1943 1940-1943 1940-1943 ص 281- 282.سلطان ناجي: مرجع سابق، ص 122.
  104. ^هيئة العمليات الحربية: مطبوعة، الورقة الثالثة. (Translation: Military Operations Authority: printed, third page)
  105. ^- أحمد قائد الصايدي: اليمن في عيون الرحالة الاجانب، الطبعة: الأولى، 2011 ، إخراج: الافاق للطباعة والنشر، الناشر: مرکز الدراسات والبحوث الأمني، ص 41.
  106. ^عبد الله السلال، عبد الرحمن الإرياني ، عبد السلام صبرة: وثائق أولى، عن الثورة اليمنية، مركز الدراسات والبحوث اليمني، دار الآداب، بيروت، 1985، ص 84.
  107. ^Caton, Steven C. (May 1993).Peaks of Yemen I Summon: Poetry as Cultural Practice in a North Yemeni Tribe.ISBN978-0-520-08261-8.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2024.Retrieved7 June2024.
  108. ^القوات المسلحة بين الامس واليوم:الحديث عن قوات مسلحة منظمة قبل قيام الثورة أمر يبتعد عن الدقة - تصفح: نسخة محفوظة 06 مارس 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
  109. ^الموسوعة العسكرية، المؤسسة العربية للدراسات والنشر، تاريخ النشر: 01/08/1977، ص 471.
  110. ^Cooper, Tom (2017).Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 1: Aerial Warfare Over the South Arabian Peninsula, 1962-1994.Solihull, UK: Helion & Company Publishing.ISBN978-1-912174-23-2
  111. ^Cooper, Tom (2017).Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 1: The Air War Over the Southern Arabian Peninsula, 1962-1994.Solihull, UK: Helion & Company Publishing.ISBN978-1-912174-23-2.pp. 6-7
  112. ^Cooper, Tom (2017).Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 1: The Air War Over the Southern Arabian Peninsula, 1962-1994.Solihull, UK: Helion & Company Publishing.ISBN978-1-912174-23-2.s8-9
  113. ^Cooper, Tom (2017).Hot Skies Over Yemen, Volume 1: The Air War Over the Southern Arabian Peninsula, 1962-1994.Solihull, UK: Helion & Company Publishing.ISBN978-1-912174-23-2.p 9
  114. ^Pasha, Hasan Muhiddin (26 December 2023).Ah O Yemen – 1904 Rebellion.Tarihçi Kitabevi. p. 72.ISBN9786054534029.Retrieved19 June2022.
  115. ^"Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 1): The Ground War".The Washington Institute.Archivedfrom the original on 6 December 2017.Retrieved9 July2022.
  116. ^سياسي (1337-1382هــ/1918-1962مـ)، رسالة ماجستير، أحمد علي أحمد حسن الزراعي، جامعة صنعاء، الباب الثاني محاو
  117. ^ab"Eddins, Gary Allen. The International Importance of Yemen".Archived fromthe originalon 18 March 2023.Retrieved18 March2023.
  118. ^Erich W, Bethmann, Yemen on the Threshold (Washington, D.G.; American Friends of the Middle East, I960), p,.39.
  119. ^"Zeydıyye".TDV İslâm Ensiklopedisi(in Turkish).Archivedfrom the original on 15 August 2022.Retrieved15 August2022.
  120. ^"History of the Jews of Yemen".aish.10 May 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 5 July 2022.Retrieved9 August2022.
  121. ^abThe Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times,by Reeva Spector Simon, Michael Menachem Laskier, Sara Reguer editors, Columbia University Press, 2003, page 392
  122. ^"The Jews of Yemen".Jewishvirtuallibrary.org.Archivedfrom the original on 13 January 2017.Retrieved28 October2014.
  123. ^/spages/1030121.html Our man in Sanaa: Ex-Yemen president was once trainee rabbiArchived2 December 2009 at theWayback MachineHaaretz
  124. ^Abdul-Rahman al-Iryani, Ex-Yemen President, 89– The New York Times, March 17, 1998.
  125. ^"Haaretz Dreams".Archivedfrom the original on 28 October 2014.Retrieved28 October2014.
  126. ^Jewish Communities in Exotic Places, "by Ken Blady,Jason AronsonInc., 2000, page 10
  127. ^"المواصلات في زمن الإمام يحيى".اليمن الجمهوري(in Arabic). 9 September 2018. Archived fromthe originalon 25 December 2022.Retrieved8 August2022.
  128. ^"الفرنسية" لوسيل فيفرييه "تروي جانباً من جحيم الإمامة في اليمن".اليمن الجمهوري(in Arabic). 17 May 2022. Archived fromthe originalon 17 May 2022.Retrieved13 March2023.
  129. ^Yemen-Turkey Relations in the Period of National Struggle, He did not welcome this idea and rejected it because it was Imam Yahya-Mustafa Kemal Pasha Correspondence p.27-28

Sources

[edit]
  • History of Arabia,Encyclopædia Britannica(Macropædia Vol. 1). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1979, pp. 1043–1051.
  • Kingdom of Yemenat Flags of the World.
[edit]
Look upKingdom of Yemenin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Yemen&oldid=1242111821"