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Kiritimati

Coordinates:01°51′00″N157°24′00″W/ 1.85000°N 157.40000°W/1.85000; -157.40000
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This article is about Kiribati's atoll in the Pacific Ocean. For Australia's territory, seeChristmas Island.For other uses, seeChristmas Island (disambiguation).

Kiritimati
(Christmas Island)
Photograph from the International Space Station
Map of the Line Islands
Kiritimati is located in Kiribati
Kiritimati
Kiritimati
Kiritimati is located in Pacific Ocean
Kiritimati
Kiritimati
Geography
LocationNorthPacific Ocean
Coordinates01°51′00″N157°24′00″W/ 1.85000°N 157.40000°W/1.85000; -157.40000
ArchipelagoLine Islands
Area640.38 km2(247.25 sq mi)
Highest elevation13 m (43 ft)
Highest pointJoe's Hill
Administration
Island councilKiritimati
Largest settlementTabwakea(pop. 3,547)
Demographics
Population7,380 (2020 census)
Pop. density16.6/km2(43/sq mi)
LanguagesGilbertese
Ethnic groupsI-Kiribati
Additional information
Time zone

Kiritimati(Gilbertese pronunciation:[kiˈrɪsmæs],also known asChristmas Island) is aPacific Oceanatollin the northernLine Islands.It is part of theRepublic of Kiribati.The name is derived from the English word "Christmas" written inGilberteseaccording to itsphonology,in which the combinationtiis pronounced /s/.

Kiritimati is one of the world's largest atolls in terms of land area, consisting of about 312.38 km2(120.61 sq mi) land area and a 328 km2(127 sq mi) network oflagoons;.[1]The atoll is about 150 km (93 mi) in perimeter, while the lagoon shoreline extends for over 48 km (30 mi).[2]Kiritimati comprises over 70% of the total land area of Kiribati, a country encompassing 33 Pacific atolls and islands.[3]

It lies 232 km (144 mi) north of theequator,2,160 km (1,340 mi) south ofHonolulu,and 5,360 km (3,330 mi) fromSan Francisco.Kiritimati is in the world's farthest forward time zone,UTC+14,and is therefore one of the first inhabited places on Earth to experience New Year's Day (see alsoCaroline Atoll,Kiribati). Although it lies 2,460 km (1,530 mi) east of the 180th meridian, the Republic of Kiribati realigned theInternational Date Linein 1995, placing Kiritimati to the west of the dateline.

Nuclear testswereconducted on and around Kiritimati by the United Kingdomin the late 1950s, andby the United States in 1962.During these tests, the island was not evacuated, exposing the i-Kiribati residents and the British, New Zealand, and Fi gian servicemen to nuclear radiation.

The entire island is aWildlife Sanctuary;[4]access to five particularly sensitive areas is restricted.[1]

History

[edit]
Location of Kiritimati

Kiritimati was initially inhabited byPolynesianpeople.Radiometric datingfrom sites on the island place the period of human use between 1250 and 1450 AD.[5][6]Permanent human settlement on Kiritimati likely never occurred.Stratigraphiclayers excavated in fire pits show alternating bands of charcoal indicating heavy use and local soil indicating a lack of use. As such, some researchers have suggested that Kiritimati was used intermittently (likely by people fromTabuaeranto the north) as a place to gather resources such as birds and turtles in a similar fashion to theethnographicallydocumented use of the five central atolls of theCaroline Islands.[5]

Archaeological sites on the island are concentrated along the east (windward) side of the island and known sites represent a series of habitation sites,marae,and supporting structures such as canoe storage sheds and navigational aids.[6]

The atoll was then discovered by Europeans with the Spanish expedition ofHernando de Grijalva[fr]in 1537, that charted it asAcea.[7][8][9][10]This discovery was referred by a contemporary, the PortugueseAntónio Galvão,governor ofTernate,in his bookTratado dos Descubrimientosof 1563.[11]During histhird voyage,Captain James Cookvisited the island on Christmas Eve (24 December) 1777[12]and the island was put on a map in 1781 asîle des Tortues(Turtles Island) byTobias Conrad Lotter[de]inAugsburg.[a]Whalingvessels visited the island from at least 1822.[14]and it was claimed by the United States under theGuano Islands Actof 1856,[15]though little actual mining ofguanotook place.

View ofLondonfrom aHandley Page Hastingsof theRAF,1956.

Permanent settlement started in 1882, mainly by workers in coconut plantations and fishermen. In 1902, the British Government granted a 99-year lease on the island toLevers Pacific Plantations.The company planted 72,863 coconut palms on the island and introducedsilver-lipped pearl oystersinto the lagoon. The settlement didn't endure: Extreme drought killed 75% of the coconut palms, and the island was abandoned from 1905 to 1912.[1]

Many of thetoponymsin the island date to FatherEmmanuel Rougier[fr],a French priest who leased the island from 1917 to 1939, and planted some 500,000coconuttrees there.[16]He lived in hisParishouse (now only small ruins) located atBenson Point,across the Burgle Channel fromLondresatBridges Point(todayLondon) where he established the port. He gave the name ofPolandto a village where Stanisław (Stanislaus) Pełczyński, his Polish plantation manager then lived.

Joe English, of Medford, Massachusetts, Rougier's plantation manager from 1915 to 1919, namedJoe's Hill(some 12 metres; 39 feet high) after himself. English and two teenagers were marooned on the island for a year and a half (1917–1919) as transport had stopped due to theSpanish flubreaking out inTahitiand around the world. English was later rescued by BritishadmiralJohn Jellicoe.English, thinking that the rescue ship was German and the war was still in effect, pulled hisrevolveron the admiral Jellicoe, causing a short standoff until some explanation defused the situation.[b]

Kiritimati was occupied by theAlliesinWorld War IIwith the U.S. in control of the island garrison.[c]The atoll was important to hold, since Japanese occupation would allow interdiction of the Hawaii-to-Australia supply route. For the first few months there were next to no recreational facilities on the island, and the men amused themselves by shooting sharks in the lagoon. The island's first airstrip was constructed at this time[1]to supply theAir Forceweather station and communications center. The airstrip also provided rest and refuelling facilities for planes travelling between Hawaii and the South Pacific. The 1947 census listed only 47 inhabitants on the island. The U.S. Guano Islands Act claim was formally ceded by theTreaty of Tarawabetween the U.S. and Kiribati. The treaty was signed in 1979 and ratified in 1983.

Spain's sovereignty rights

[edit]

During the dispute over theCaroline Islandsbetween Germany and Spain in 1885 which was arbitrated byPope Leo XIII,thesovereigntyof Spain over the Caroline andPalauislands as part of theSpanish East Indieswas analysed by a commission ofcardinalsand confirmed by an agreement signed on 17 December 1885. Its Article 2 specifies the limits of Spanish sovereignty inSouth Micronesia,being formed by the Equator and 11°N Latitude and by 133° and 164° Longitude. In 1899, Spain sold the Marianas, Carolines, and Palau to Germany after its defeat in 1898 in theSpanish–American War.However Emilio Pastor Santos, a researcher of theSpanish National Research Council,claimed in 1948[18]that there was historical basis to argue that Kiritimati ( "Acea" on the Spanish maps) and some other islands had never been considered part ofthe Carolines,supported by the charts and maps of the time.[d]Despite having sought acknowledgement of the issue regarding interpretation of the treaty, no Spanish government has made any attempt to assert sovereignty over Kiritimati, and the case remains a historical curiosity.[19]

Nuclear bomb tests

[edit]
See also:Operation GrappleandOperation Dominic

During theCold WarKiritimati was used fornuclear weapons testingby the United Kingdom and the USA.[20]The United Kingdom conducted its firsthydrogen bombtest series,Grapple 1–3,atMalden Islandfrom 15 May to 19 June 1957 and used Kiritimati as the operation's main base. On 8 November 1957, the first H-bomb was detonated over the southeastern tip of Kiritimati in theGrapple Xtest. Subsequent tests in 1958 (Grapple YandZ) also took place above or near Kiritimati.

The United Kingdom detonated some 5 megatonnes of TNT (21 PJ) of nuclear payload near and 1.8 megatonnes of TNT (7.5 PJ) directly above Kiritimati in 1957–1958, while the total yield of weapons tested by the United States in the vicinity of the island between 25 April and 11 July 1962 was 24 megatonnes of TNT (100 PJ). During the BritishGrapple Xtest,yieldwas stronger than expected, resulting in the blast demolishing buildings and infrastructure.[21]Islanders were usually not evacuated during the nuclear weapons testing, and data on the environmental and public health impact of these tests remains contested.[22]Servicemen believe that cancer and genetic damage were consequences of their occupational exposure and have sought apologies and compensation without success.[23]A spokesperson for the U.K.'s Department of Defence stated in 2018 that "the National Radiological Protection Board has carried out three large studies of nuclear test veterans and found no valid evidence to link participation in these tests to ill health."[24]

The United States also conducted 22 successful nuclear detonations over the island as part ofOperation Dominicin 1962. Some toponyms (likeBananaandMain Camp) come from the nuclear testing period, during which at times over 4,000 servicemen were present. By 1969, military interest in Kiritimati had ended and the facilities were mostly dismantled. However, some communications, transport, and logistics facilities were converted for civilian use, which Kiritimati uses to serve as the administrative centre for the Line Islands.[1]

  • The British Grapple Y test on 28 April 1958
    The BritishGrapple Ytest on 28 April 1958
  • The bombs for the British Grapple Z1 and Z4 tests were hoisted by balloon; this is the East Point balloon anchor.
    The bombs for the BritishGrapple Z1andZ4tests were hoisted by balloon; this is the East Point balloon anchor.
  • A US test in the Operation Dominic series, 1962
    A US test in theOperation Dominicseries, 1962
  • Memorial tablet in Paisley remembering the people involved in the tests
    Memorial tablet inPaisleyremembering the people involved in the tests

Present status

[edit]
Kiritimati population by village
No. Village Population
(2015)[25]
1 Tabwakea 3,001
2 London 1,895
3 Banana
(Banana Wells) 		1,209
4 Poland 351
5 Paris(ruins) 0
Kiritimati 6,456

The island's population increased from about 2,000 in 1989 to about 5,000 in the early 2000s. Kiritimati has three representatives in theManeaba ni Maungatabu.There are five main villages on the island, four populated and one abandoned; Banana, Tabwakea, Poland and London, which are located along the main road on the northern tip of the island, and Poland, which is across the main lagoon to the South.:[3][25]

London is the main village and hosts the port facility, and the ministry of the Line and Phoenix islands. Poland hosts a Catholic church, dedicated under the auspices ofSaint Stanislaus. Banana is nearCassidy International Airportbut may be relocated closer to London to prevent groundwater contamination. Paris is an abandoned village and is no longer listed in census reports.

Education

[edit]

There is a primary school in Poland and two high schools on the road between Tabwakea and Banana; oneCatholic,and oneProtestant.TheUniversity of Hawaiihas aclimatologicalresearch facility on Kiritimati.[1]The Kiribati Institute of Technology (KIT), based on Tarawa, opened a campus on Kiritimati in June 2019.

Commerce

[edit]

Most of the atoll's food supplies have to be imported.Potable watercan be in short supply, especially around November inLa Niñayears. A large and modernjetty,handling some cargo, was built by the Japanese at London. Marine fish provide a large portion of the island's nutrition, althoughoverfishinghas caused a drastic decrease in the populations of large, predatory fish over the last several years.[26]

Exports of the atoll are mainlycopra(dried coconut pulp); the state-owned coconutplantationcovers about 51 square kilometres (20 sq mi). In additionaquariumfish andseaweedare exported. A 1970s project to commercially breedArtemia salinabrine shrimp in the salt ponds was abandoned in 1978. In recent years there have been attempts to explore the viability of livecrayfishand chilled fish exports and salt production.[1]

Transport

[edit]

Cassidy International Airport(CXI) is located just north ofBananaand North East Point. It has a paved runway with a length of 6,900 feet (2,103 m) and was for some time the only airport in Kiribati to serve the Americas, via anAir Pacific(nowFiji Airways) flight toHonolulu,Hawaii. Te Mauri Travel no longer offers weekly charter flights from Honolulu.

Cassidy International Airport, Kiritimati

Air Tungaruwas serving Kiritimati in 1981 with nonstopBoeing 727-100jet flights toHonolulu(HNL),Papeete, Tahiti(PPT) andTarawa(TRW) with each service operating once a week with the service to Papeete being operated in association withUnion de Transports Aeriens(UTA), a French airline.[27]Aloha Airlinesintroduced its weekly nonstop jet service between Honolulu and the island in 1986 operated with aBoeing 737-200.[28]Aloha was continuing to serve Kiritimati from 2000 to 2003 with 737 jet service to and from Honolulu nonstop.[29][30]Air Pacific ran flights to Kiritimati until 2008, when they ceased service over concerns about the condition of the runway.[31]Services resumed in 2010.[32]A monthly air freight service is flown using a charteredBoeing 727fromHonoluluoperated byAsia Pacific Airlines.[33]

Aeon Fieldis an abandoned airport, constructed before the British nuclear tests.[34]It is located on the southeastern peninsula.

Communications

[edit]

The islands' remote location in the Central Pacific has meant that communications with the world has always been challenging. As of October 2023 all calls and data rely on satellite connection only with very slow internet connection.

In July 2022 The Southern Cross NEXT 15,857 km submarine cable system, entered service,[35]connecting Los Angeles and Sydney with dedicated 377 kilometers (one fiber pair) branch to Tabwakea, Kiritimati. Cable landing station located in Tabwakea, owned by Bwebwerikinet Limited. As of October 2023 landing station was built, but still not commissioned. Apart from Australia and US, the cable will also provide direct low latency connection to Fiji, New Zealand and Tokelau.[36][37]

Tourism

[edit]

There is a small amount of tourism, mainly associated with anglers interested in lagoon fishing (forbonefishin particular) or offshore fishing. Week-longecotourismpackages during which some of the normally closed areas can be visited are also available.[1]

In recent years, surfers have discovered that there are good waves during the Northern Hemisphere's winter season and there are interests developing to service these recreational tourists.[38]There is some tourism-related infrastructure, such as a small hotel, rental facilities, and food services.

Prospective launch sites

[edit]

In the early 1950s,Wernher von Braunproposed using this island as a launch site for crewed spacecraft, based on its proximity to the equator, and the generally empty ocean down-range (east).

There is a JapaneseJAXAsatellite tracking station. The abandoned Aeon Field had at one time been proposed for reuse by the Japanese for their now-canceledHOPE-Xspace shuttle project.[39][40]

Kiritimati is also located fairly close to theSea Launchsatellite launching spot at 0° N 154° W, about 370 kilometres (200nmi) to the east in international waters.

Geography

[edit]
nautical chart(1977)

Kiritimati's roughly 328 km2(127 sq mi) lagoon area opens to the sea in the northwest;Burgle Channel(the entrance to the lagoon) is divided into the northernCook Island Passageand the southernSouth Passage.The southeastern part of the lagoon area is partially desiccated. The lagoon area currently consists of a 160 km2(62 sq mi) main lagoon at Burgle Channel. Southeast of this, the lagoon gradually transitions into a network of subsidiary lagoons,tidal flats,partiallyhypersalinebrineponds andsalt panswhich have a total combined area of about 168 km2(65 sq mi). Thus, the land and lagoon areas can only be given approximately, as no firm boundary exists between the main island body and the salt flats.[1]

Kiritimati is araised coral atollwith about 312.38 km2(120.61 sq mi) land area surrounding a lagoon area of roughly the same size. Kiritimati has the largest land area in the world amongst atolls that contain a lagoon, and the third largest land area overall, afterLifou IslandandRennell Island.Kiritimati is often cited as being the world's largest atoll by land area, however, because Lifou Island and Rennell Island do not have lagoons and therefore end up being overlooked as atolls.[41]

In addition to the main island, there are several smaller ones.Cook Islandis part of the atoll proper but unconnected to the Kiritimati mainland. It is a sand/coral island of 19 ha (47 acres), divides Burgle Channel into the northern and the southern entrance, and has a large seabird colony. Islets (motus) in the lagoon includeMotu Tabu(3.5 ha or 8.6 acres) with itsPisoniaforest and the shrub-coveredMotu Upua(also called Motu Upou or Motu Upoa, 19 ha or 47 acres) at the northern side, andNgaontetaake(2.7 ha or 7 acres) at the eastern side.[1]

Joe's Hill(originallyLa colline de Joe) on the north coast of the south-easternpeninsula,southeast of Artemia Corners, is the highest point on the atoll, at about 13 m (43 ft)ASL.[1][42]On the northwestern peninsula for example, the land rises only to some 7 m (23 ft),[2]which is still considerable for an atoll. Due to its isolation in the vast Pacific Ocean,Joe's Hillis the 33rd most topographically isolated summit on Earth.

Vaskess Bayis a large bay which extends along the southwest coast of Kiritimati Island.

Climate

[edit]

Despite its proximity to theIntertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ),Kiritimati is located in an equatorial dry zone and rainfall is rather low except duringEl Niñoyears; 873 mm (34.4 in) on average per year, in some years it can be as little as 177 mm (7.0 in) and much of the flats and ponds can dry up such as in late 1978. On the other hand, in some exceptionally wet years abundant downpours in March–April may result in a total annual precipitation of over 2,500 mm (98 in). Kiritimati is thus affected by regular, severe droughts. They are exacerbated by its geological structure;climatically"dry" Pacific islands are more typically located in the "desertbelt "at about 30°N or Slatitude.Kiritimati is a raised atoll, and although it does occasionally receive plenty ofprecipitation,little is retained given the porouscarbonate rock,the thinsoil,and the absence of dense vegetation cover on much of the island, whileevaporationis constantly high.[2]Consequently, Kiritimati is one of the rather few places close to theEquatorwhich have an effectivelyaridclimate.[1]

The temperature is constantly between 24 and 30 °C (75 and 86 °F) with morediurnal temperature variationthan seasonal variation. Easterlytrade windspredominate.[1]

Climate data for London, Kiritimati, Kiribati
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 32
(89) 		33
(91) 		33
(92) 		33
(92) 		34
(93) 		32
(90) 		32
(90) 		33
(91) 		33
(91) 		33
(92) 		33
(92) 		33
(91) 		34
(93)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 29
(85) 		29
(85) 		30
(86) 		30
(86) 		31
(87) 		31
(87) 		30
(86) 		31
(87) 		31
(87) 		31
(87) 		30
(86) 		30
(86) 		30
(86)
Daily mean °C (°F) 27
(80) 		27
(80) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		28
(82) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		27
(81) 		27
(80) 		27
(81)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 24
(75) 		24
(75) 		24
(76) 		24
(76) 		24
(76) 		24
(76) 		24
(76) 		25
(77) 		24
(76) 		24
(75) 		24
(76) 		24
(75) 		24
(76)
Record low °C (°F) 19
(66) 		22
(71) 		22
(71) 		21
(70) 		23
(73) 		20
(68) 		22
(72) 		22
(71) 		21
(69) 		20
(68) 		19
(67) 		21
(69) 		19
(66)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 25
(1.0) 		71
(2.8) 		64
(2.5) 		210
(8.1) 		89
(3.5) 		81
(3.2) 		51
(2.0) 		15
(0.6) 		2.5
(0.1) 		2.5
(0.1) 		7.6
(0.3) 		15
(0.6) 		633.6
(24.8)
Average precipitation days 2.4 4.6 6.0 13.8 6.8 6.1 3.0 1.8 0.1 0.3 0.7 1.7 47.3
Averagerelative humidity(%) 77 80 80 83 81 80 78 75 74 74 73 75 78
Source: Weatherbase[43]

Demography

[edit]

At the first census done in theGilbert and Ellice Islandscolony in 1931, there were only 38 inhabitants on the island, most of them workers of theEmmanuel Rougier[fr]Company. After WWII in 1947 there were 52 inhabitants. After the nuclear tests, in 1963, this had increased to 477, reducing to 367 by 1967 but increasing again to 674 in 1973, 1,265 in 1978, 1,737 in the 1985 census, 2,537 in 1990, 3,225 in 1995, 3,431 in 2000, 5,115 in 2005, 5,586 in 2010 and 6,456 in 2015. This was the fastest population growth in Kiribati.

Ecology

[edit]

Thefloraand thefaunaconsist oftaxaadapted to drought.Terrestrialfauna is scant; there are no truly native landmammalsand only one native land bird[44]– Kiribati'sendemicreed-warbler,thebokikokiko(Acrocephalus aequinoctialis). The 1957 attempt to introduce theendangeredRimitara lorikeet(Vini kuhlii) has largely failed; a few birds seem to linger on, but the lack of abundantcoconut palmforest, on which this tiny parrot depends, makes Kiritimati a suboptimal habitat for thisspecies.

Flowers of beach naupaka (Scaevola taccada), Kiritimati's most typical woody plant.

Flora

[edit]

The natural vegetation on Kiritimati consists mostly of lowshrublandandgrassland.What little woodland exists is mainly opencoconut palm(Cocos nucifera) plantation. There are three small woods of catchbird trees (Pisonia grandis), at Southeast Point, Northwest Point, and on Motu Tabu. The latter was planted there in recent times. About 50introducedplantspeciesare found on Kiritimati; as most are plentiful around settlements, former military sites and roads, it seems that these only became established in the 20th century.[1]

Tree heliotrope (Heliotropium foertherianum) in typical habitat on aHawaiian island.

Beach naupaka (Scaevola taccada) is the most commonshrubon Kiritimati; beach naupaka scrub dominates the vegetation on much of the island, either as pure stands or interspersed with tree heliotrope (Heliotropium foertherianum) and bay cedar (Suriana maritima). The latter species is dominant on the drier parts of the lagoon flats where it grows up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall. Tree heliotrope is most commonly found a short distance from the sea- or lagoon-shore. In some places near the seashore, a low vegetation dominated by Polynesian heliotrope (Heliotropium anomalum), yellow purslane (Portulaca lutea) and common purslane (P. oleracea) is found. In the south and on the sandier parts,Sida fallax,also growing up to 2 m tall, is abundant. On the southeastern peninsula,S. fallaxgrows more stunted, and Polynesian heliotrope, yellow and common purslane as well as thespiderlingBoerhavia repens,theparasiticvineCassytha filiformis,and Pacific Island thintail (Lepturus repens) supplement it. The last species dominates in the coastal grasslands. The wetter parts of the lagoon shore are often covered by abundant growth of shoreline purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum).[1]

Perhaps the most destructive of the recently introduced plants is sweetscent (Pluchea odorata), acamphorweed,which is considered aninvasive weedas it overgrows and displaces herbs and grasses. The introduced creeperTribulus cistoides,despite having also spread conspicuously, is considered to be more beneficial than harmful to theecosystem,as it provides good nesting sites for someseabirds.[1]

Birds

[edit]
Despite massive declines in recent decades, moresooty ternscontinue to nest on Kiritimati than anywhere else in the world.
TheChristmas shearwaterwas named after Kiritimati.
Brown-morphred-footed booby.Those on Kiritimati will reuse nests for several years, unlike in most other colonies.
See also "Extinction"below.

More than 35 birdspecieshave been recorded from Kiritimati. As noted above, only thebokikokiko(Acrocephalus aequinoctialis), perhaps a fewRimitara lorikeets(Vini kuhlii) – if any remain at all – and the occasionaleastern reef egret(Egretta sacra) make up the entire landbird fauna. About 1,000 adult bokikokikos are to be found at any date, but mainly in mixed grass/shrubland away from the settlements.[1]

On the other hand,seabirdsare plentiful on Kiritimati, and make up the bulk of the breeding bird population. There are 18 species of seabirds breeding on the island, and Kiritimati is one of the most important breeding grounds anywhere in the world for several of these:[1]

Phaethontiformes

  • Easternred-tailed tropicbird(Phaethon rubricauda melanorhynchus[e]) – important breeding colony; 8,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline, fewer than 3,000 in 1984

Charadriiformes

  • Micronesianblack noddy(Anous minutus marcusi) – 20,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Little white tern(Gygis microrhyncha[f]) – 8,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Central Pacificsooty tern(Onychoprion fuscatus oahuensis[e]) – largest breeding colony in the world; around 7,000,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Spectacled tern(Onychoprion lunatus) – important breeding colony; 6,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Centralblue-grey noddy(Procelsterna cerulea cerulea) – important breeding colony, possibly the largest worldwide of this subspecies; 4,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline

Procellariiformes

  • Polynesian storm petrel(Nesofregetta fuliginosa) – important breeding colony; 1,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Phoenix petrel(Pterodroma alba) – largest breeding colony in the world; 24,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Christmas shearwater(Puffinus nativitatis) – largestsubpopulationworldwide on Motu Upua; 12,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Wedge-tailed shearwater(Puffinus pacificus[45]) – among the very largest breeding colonies in the world; about 1,000,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline

Pelecaniformes

  • Indopacificlesser frigatebird(Fregata ariel ariel) – important breeding colony; 9,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Central Pacificgreat frigatebird(Fregata minor palmerstoni[e]) – important breeding colony; 12,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline, 6,500 afterwards
  • Austropacificmasked booby(Sula dactylatra personata) – important breeding colony; 3,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline
  • Indopacificred-footed booby(Sula sula rubripes[e]) – 12,000 birds before the 1982–1983 decline

Kiritimati's lagoon and the saltflats are a prime location formigratory birdsto stop over or even stay all winter. The most commonly seen migrants areruddy turnstone(Arenaria interpres),Pacific golden plover(Pluvialis fulva),bristle-thighed curlew(Numenius tahitiensis), andwandering tattler(Tringa incana); otherseabirds,waders,and evendabbling duckscan be encountered every now and then.[1]Around 7 October (±5 days), some 20 million sooty shearwaters pass through here en route from the North Pacific feeding grounds to breeding sites aroundNew Zealand.[46]

Other fauna

[edit]

The only mammals native to the region are the commonPolynesian rat(Rattus exulans) and the goats. The rat seems to have been introduced by seafarers many centuries before Cook arrived in 1777 (he mentioned them already being present); goats have been extinct since 14 January 2004.Black rats(Rattus rattus) were present at some time, perhaps introduced by 19th century sailors or during the nuclear tests. They were not able to gain a foothold betweenpredationby cats andcompetitive exclusionby Polynesian rats, and no black rat population is found on Kiritimati today.[1]

Up to 2,000feral catscan in some years be found on the island; the population became established in the 19th century. Their depredations seriously harm the birdlife. Since the late 19th century,[2]they have driven about 60% of the seabird species from the mainland completely, and during particular dry spells they will cross the mudflats and feast upon the birds on themotus.Spectacled ternchicks seem to be a favourite food of the local cat population. There are some measures being taken to ensure the cat population does not grow. That lowering the cat population by some amount would much benefit Christmas and its inhabitants is generally accepted, but the situation is too complex to simply go and eradicate them outright (which is theoretically possible; seeMarion Island) – seebelowfor details. A limited population offeral pigsexists. They were once plentiful and wreaked havoc especially on theOnychoprionandnoddies.Pig huntingby locals has been encouraged, and was highly successful at limiting the pig population to a sustainable level, while providing a source of cheap protein for the islanders.[1]

Mourning gecko,a common sight all over the tropical Pacific
Astrawberry land hermit crabin its shell

There are some"supertramp"lizardswhich have reached the island by their own means. Commonly seen are themourning gecko(Lepidodactylus lugubris) and theskinkCryptoblepharus boutonii;thefour-clawed gecko(Gehyra mutilata) is seen less often.[1]

There are somecrustaceansof note to be found on Kiritimati and in the waters immediately adjacent. Theamphibiouscoconut crab(Birgus latro) is not as common as onTeraina.Ghost crabs(genusOcypode),Cardisoma carnifexandGeograpsus grayiland crabs,thestrawberry land hermit crab(Coenobita perlatus) are also notable.[1]Introduced brine shrimpArtemia salinapopulate the island's saline ponds.[1]

Ecology of the reef

[edit]

Overfishing and pollution have impacted on the ocean surrounding the island. In the ocean surrounding uninhabited islands of the Northern Line Islands,Sharkscomprised 74% of the top predator biomass (329 g/m2) atKingman Reefand 57% atPalmyra Atoll(97 g/m2), whereas low shark numbers have been observed atTabuaeranand Kiritimati.[47]

Green turtles(Chelonia mydas) regularly nest in small numbers on Kiritimati. The lagoon is famous among sea anglers worldwide for itsbonefish(Albula glossodonta), and has been stocked withOreochromistilapiato decreaseoverfishingof marine species. Though the tilapias thrive inbrackish waterof the flats, they will not last long should they escape into the surrounding ocean.[1]

Giant Trevally(Caranx ignobilis) are found in large numbers both inside and outside of the lagoon and along the surrounding reefs. Very large specimens of Giant Trevally can be found around these surrounding reefs and they are sought after by many fishermen in addition to Bonefish.

Conservation and extinction

[edit]
See also:Protected areas of Kiribati
Sweetscent(Pluchea odorata) has become a serious weed in parts of Kiritimati.

In December 1960, the British colonial authority gazetted Kiritimati as abird sanctuaryunder the "Gilbert and Ellice Island Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance" of 1938. Access to Cook Island, Motu Tabu, and Motu Upua was restricted. Kiritimati was declared aWildlife Sanctuaryin May 1975, in accordance with the Wildlife Conservation Ordinance of the then self-governing colony. Ngaontetaake and thesooty ternbreeding grounds at North West Point also became restricted-access zones. Two years later, active conservation measures got underway.[1]

To a limited extent, permits to enter the restricted areas for purposes like research or small-scaleecotourismare given. Kiribati's Wildlife Conservation Unit participates in the Kiritimati Development Committee and the Local Land Planning Board, and there exists an integrated program of wildlife conservation and education.New Zealandis a major sponsor of conservation efforts on Kiritimati.[1]

Former egg gathering

[edit]

Egg collecting for food on a massive scale was frequent in the past but is now outlawed. It is to be noted that the sooty terns for example could sustain occasional collection of effectively all of a season's eggs (over 10 million), if given sufficient time to recover and if cats are absent. In theory, even egg collecting on a scale that significantly decreases costly food imports could be possible, but not until the cat and rat populations have been brought under control.Poachingremains a concern; with the population rising and spreading out on Kiritimati, formerly remote bird colonies have become more accessible; thered-tailed tropicbirdsand theSulaespecially are strongly affected by hunting and disturbance. Tropicbirds are mainly poached for their feathers, which are used in local arts and handicraft; it would certainly be possible to obtain them from living birds as was routinely done at the height of the Polynesian civilisation.[1]

Feral cats

[edit]

It may seem that the former numbers of seabirds may only ever be approached again by the wholesale eradication of the feral cats. While this has been since shown to be feasible,[g]it is not clear whether even a severe curtailing of the cat population would be desirable: Though it previously was assumed that the small Polynesian rat is of little, if any, harm to seabirds, evenhouse micehave been shown to eat seabird nestlings. Most nesting birds, in particularlyProcellariiformes,are now accepted to be jeopardised byRattus exulans.Kiritimati's cats meanwhile, are very fond of young seabirds; it even seems that their behaviour shifts accordingly, with cats being generally lessterritorial,and congregating in numbers at active bird colonies; they generally eschew hunting rats when seabird chicks are in plenty.[1]

Possession of an unneutered female cat on Kiritimati is illegal, and owners need to prevent their domestic cats from running wild (such animals are usually quickly killed in traps set for this purpose). Nighttime cat hunting has made little effect on the cat population. As noted above, vigorous protection of active nesting grounds from cats by traps and poison, supplemented by shooting, while otherwise leaving them alone to hunt rats may well be the optimal solution.[1]

8 November 1957Grapple XRound C1 – the first successful Britishhydrogen bombtest – detonates over Kiritimati's South East Point.

Radiation hazards

[edit]

There is no reliable data on the environmental and public health impact of the nuclear tests conducted on the island in the late 1950s.[1]A 1975 study[48]claimed that there was negligible radiation hazard; certainly,falloutwas successfully minimised. More recently however, aMassey Universitystudy ofNew Zealandfoundchromosomal translocationsto be increased about threefold on average in veterans who participated in the tests;[49]most of the relevant data remains classified to date.

1982–1983 El Niño

[edit]

The 1982–1983 "mega-El Niño"devastated seabird populations on Kiritimati. In some species,mortalityrose to 90% and breeding success dropped to zero during that time.[1]

In general, El Niño conditions will cause seabird populations to drop, taking several years to recover at the present density of predators.Global warmingimpact on Kiritimati is thus unpredictable. El Niño events seem to become shorter but more frequent in a warmer climate.

Climate change

[edit]

Much of the island's infrastructure and habitation, with the notable exception of the airport area, is located to theleewardand thus somewhat protected from storms.

A rising sea level does not appear to be particularly problematic; the increasing flooding of the subsidiary lagoons would provide easily observed forewarning, and might even benefit seabird populations by making themotus less accessible to predators. In fact, geological data suggests that Kiritimati has withstood prehistoric sea level changes well.[2][50]

The biggest hazard caused by a changing climate would seem to be more prolonged and/or severe droughts, which could even precipitate the island's abandonment (as happened in 1905). However, it is not clear how weather patterns would change, and it may be that precipitation increases.

Extinction

[edit]

Thetype specimenof theTuamotu sandpiper(Prosobonia cancellata) was collected on Christmas Island in 1778, probably on 1 or 2 January, duringCaptain Cook's visit.[51]The expedition'snaturalistWilliam Andersonobserved the bird, and it was painted by William Ellis (linked below). The single specimen was inJoseph Banks's collection at the end of the 18th century, but later was lost or destroyed. There is sometaxonomicdispute regarding the Kiritimati population.[52][53]

As allProsoboniaseem(ed) to be resident birds, unwilling to undertake long-distance migrations, an appropriate treatment would be to consider the extinct population thenominate subspecies,asProsobonia cancellatacancellataor Kiritimati sandpiper, distinct from the survivingTuamotu Islandspopulation more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) to the southeast. It may have been, but probably was not, limited to Kiritimati; while no remains have been found, little fieldwork has been conducted, and judging from theTuamotu sandpiper's habits, almost allLine Islandswould have offered suitablehabitat.

The Kiritimati population ofP. cancellatadisappeared in the earlier part of the 19th century or so, almost certainly due to predation by introduced mammals. WhileProsoboniagenerally manage to hold their own againstPolynesian rats,they are highly vulnerable to theblack ratandferal cats.[54]Given the uncertainties surrounding the introduction date and maximum population of the former, the cats seem to be the main culprits in the Kiritimati sandpiper's extinction.

Thebuff-banded rail(Gallirallus philippensis) might once have had a similar-looking relative on Kiritimati.

Given that the island was apparently settled to some extent in prehistoric times, it may have already lost bird species then. The geological data indicates that Kiritimati is very old and was never completely underwater in theHoloceneat least; thus it might have once harboured highly distinct wetland birds.

The limited overallhabitatdiversity on Kiritimati nonetheless limits the range of such hypotheticaltaxa,as doesbiogeographydue to its remote location. At least one, possibly severalGallirallusand / orPorzanarailsmake the most likely candidates, given their former presence in the region, and that conditions on Kiritimati would seem well suited. Perhaps aTodiramphuskingfisherwas also present; such a bird would probably have belonged to thesacred kingfisher(T. sanctus) group, as that species today occurs as a vagrant inMicronesia,and related forms are resident in southeasternPolynesia.These birds would have fallen victim to thePolynesian rat.In the case of the rails (which would have almost certainly beenflightless) hunting by occasionally resident Polynesians, in addition to predation by the imported rats, likely contributed to their extinction.[50]

Education

[edit]

There is a government high school, Melaengi Tabai Secondary School, which is located onTabuaeran(though the government of Kiribati wished to re-open its campus on Kiritimati instead)[55]in addition to a Catholic senior high, St. Francis High School.[56]

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^This is the first separately-issued map to depictSandwich Islands(O-Why-hee) and Christmas Island: Two panels of text, beneath the map, in both French and German, mention the discoveries and tell that Christmas Island was not inhabited. The text claims also that it is based on a map published inThe Gentleman's Magazineof 1780. This previously map, from theGentleman's Magazine,was published by the elderThomas Kitchin,initially in July 1780.Tobias Conrad Lotter(1717–1777) was also an engraver. James Cook described it:
    "On the 24th, about half an hour after day-break, land was discovered bearing North East by East, half East. Upon a nearer approach, it was found to be one of those low islands so common in this ocean; that is, a narrow bank of land incloseing the sea within. A few cocoa-nut trees were seen in two or three places; but in general, the land has a very barren appearance.... The meeting with Soundings determined me to anchor to try to get some turtle, as the island seemed to be a good place for them and to be without inhabitents."[13]
  2. ^After his rescue, English's adventures were chronicled in theBoston Globehttps:// roland-klinger.de/christmas-island/english.htm
  3. ^The first contingent of Americans was a company from the102nd Infantry Regiment,a National Guard unit fromNew Haven, Connecticut.[17]
  4. ^Based on Pastor Santos' interpretation, Kiritimati was not included in the description of the territory transferred to Germany, since it wasn't part ofthe Carolines,and therefore was not affected on the part of Spain to any cessation of transfer. Theoretically Spain would then have the only jurisdiction and right to the island. Pastor Santos presented his thesis to the Spanish government in 1948. In the Council of Ministers of Spain on 12 January 1949, theMinister of Foreign Affairsdeclared that the proposal had passed to the first stage of public attention. The Cabinet of Diplomatic Information of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs circulated the following note:
    The Minister of Foreign Affairs informed the Council of Ministers of the situation in which we find ourselves in view of information and public commentary in the press and because of the requests made of the Spanish administration. The Ministry recognises that it is a certain fact and historic truth due to Article 3 of the Treaty of 1 July 1899, that Spain reserved a series of rights in Micronesia and for another thing, the specifications of the territories which Spain ceded in 1899 leaves apart certain groups of islands in the same zone.[18]: 21 
    However, no Spanish government has made any attempt in this respect.[18][19]
  5. ^abcdValidity of subspecies disputed.
  6. ^Usually described as a sub-speciesGygis albamicrorhyncha
  7. ^e.g. on remote and ruggedsubantarcticMarion Islandwith 290 km2(110 sq mi) land area.

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeaf Scott, Derek A., ed. (1993)."Teeb'aki, Republic of Kiribati"(PDF).A Directory of Wetlands in Oceania (Report). [i] Slimbridge, UK; [ii] Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: [i]International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau;[ii] Asian Wetland Bureau. pp. 187–228. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 August 2018.
  2. ^abcde Streets, Thomas H. (1877)."Some Account of the Natural History of the Fanning Group of Islands".American Naturalist.11(2): 65–72.doi:10.1086/271824.JSTOR2448050.
  3. ^ab"20. Kiritimati"(PDF).Office of Te Beretitenti – Republic of Kiribati Island Report Series.2012.Archived(PDF)from the original on 14 July 2016.Retrieved28 April2015.
  4. ^Edward R. Lovell; Taratau Kirata; Tooti Tekinaiti (September 2002)."Status report for Kiribati's coral reefs"(PDF).Centre IRD de Nouméa.Retrieved29 March2021.
  5. ^abDiPiazzi, Anne (June 2001). "An Island for Gardens, an Island for Birds and Voyaging: A Settlement Pattern for Kiritimati and Tabuaeran, Two" Mystery Islands "in the Northern Lines, Republic of Kiribati".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.110(2): 149–170.JSTOR20706989.
  6. ^abAnderson, Atholl (2000)."TOWARDS A FIRST PREHISTORY OF KIRITIMATI (CHRISTMAS) ISLAND, REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI".Journal of the Polynesian Society.109(3): 273–294. Archived fromthe originalon 13 February 2018.Retrieved20 March2022.
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  9. ^Maude, H.E. (1959). "Spanish discoveries in the Pacific".Journal of the Polynesian Society.68(4). Wellington, New Zealand: 296.
  10. ^Brand, Donald D. (1967).The Pacific Basin: A history of its geographical explorations.New York, NY: The American Geographical Society. p. 122.
  11. ^Galvão, António(1865).The Discoveries of the World, from their First Original unto the Year of our Lord 1555.Series I. Vol. 30. London, UK: Hakluyt Society.
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  13. ^Cook, James;King, James; Anderson, William (June 1784). Douglas, John (ed.).Third voyage of James Cook.Vol. 2. p. 180.
  14. ^Langdon, Robert, ed. (1984).Where the Whalers Went: An index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century.Canberra, AU: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau. p. 149.ISBN0-86784-471-X.
  15. ^Formerly Disputed Islands.Office of Insular Affairs (Report). U.S.Department of the Interior.Archived fromthe originalon 30 September 2007.
  16. ^Christian Beslu (1998)."Christmas Island and Father Rougier"(PDF).roland-klinger.de.
  17. ^"The 102nd".West Haven Veterans Museum and Learning Center.Retrieved3 December2021.
  18. ^abcd Pastor y Santos, Emilio (1950).Territorios de soberanía española en Oceanía.Instituto de Estudios Africanos (in Spanish). Madrid, ES: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.OCLC912692168.
  19. ^abWeaver, Zay (1967). Territories under Spanish Sovereignty in Oceania (Report). Koror: Palau Museum.– partial translation of Pastor y Santos (1950)[18]
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  25. ^ab"Vol 1: Basic Information and Tables. Part B: Personal (Population) Tables. Table 3: Population by Village, Sex and Age Group"(PDF).Report on the Kiribati 2015 Census of Population and Housing (Report). 2015. S. 50. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 29 October 2019.Retrieved7 July2020.
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  27. ^https:// timetableimages /i-uz/vk8106b.jpg
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  30. ^https:// departedflights /AQ090203.html
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  33. ^"Flight Schedule".Flyapa.Asia Pacific Airlines. 6 July 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 11 July 2011.Retrieved2 March2013.
  34. ^"Fishing for new friends".Asia & the Pacific Policy Society. 27 August 2020.Retrieved3 December2021.
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  41. ^Calder, Joshua (14 December 2003)."Island Misinformation".
  42. ^"Joe's Hill".OpenStreetMap.Retrieved18 October2020.
  43. ^"Weatherbase: Historical Weather for London, Kiribati".Weatherbase. 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 11 June 2016.Retrieved14 May2016. Retrieved on 24 November 2011.
  44. ^In the strict sense, i.e. excluding theamphibiouseastern reef egret
  45. ^ Penhallurick, John; Wink, Michael (2004). "Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochromebgene ".Emu.104(2): 125–147.Bibcode:2004EmuAO.104..125P.doi:10.1071/MU01060.S2CID83202756.– species name probably soon to be changed toArdenna pacifica.
  46. ^ Shaffer, Scott A. (2006)."Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer"(PDF).Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.103(34): 12799–12802.Bibcode:2006PNAS..10312799S.doi:10.1073/pnas.0603715103.PMC1568927.PMID16908846.
  47. ^Sandin, Stuart A.; et al. (27 February 2008)."Baselines and degradation of coral reefs in the northern Line Islands".PLOS ONE.3(2): e1548.Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1548S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001548.PMC2244711.PMID18301734.S2CID12343048.
  48. ^Wolman, David (31 August 2008)."This place is the bomb".Salon.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2017.Retrieved30 January2017.
  49. ^"DNA damage to nuclear test vets prompts call for study of children"(Press release). New Zealand:Massey University.15 January 2008. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011.Retrieved25 March2008.{{cite press release}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  50. ^ab Steadman, David William(2006).Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds.University of Chicago Press. p. 282.ISBN0-226-77142-3.
  51. ^ Cook, James(1785) [1784]."Birds of Christmas Island".A voyage to the Pacific Ocean,... performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in His Majesty's Ships theResolutionand theDiscovery,etc.Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). London, UK. pp. 188–189.link is to JPEG of full text of 2nd edition (1785)
  52. ^ Townsend, Charles Haskins; Wetmore, Alexander (1919). "Reports on the scientific results of the expedition to the tropical Pacific in charge of Alexander Agassiz, on the U.S. Fish Commission steamerAlbatross,from August 1899 to March 1900, Commander Jefferson F. Moser, U.S.N., commanding ".Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.63:151–225.
  53. ^ Zusi, Richard L.; Jehl, Robert R. Jr. (1970)."The systematic relationships ofAechmorhynchus,ProsoboniaandPhegornis(Charadriiformes; Charadrii) "(PDF).Auk.87(4): 760–780.doi:10.2307/4083710.JSTOR4083710.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 March 2016.Retrieved2 March2013.
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  56. ^ "Part 2 of 4"(PDF).Tabiteuea North 2008 Socio-Economic Profile. Strengthening Decentralized Governance in Kiribati Project (Report). Kiribati: Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs. May 2013 [2008]. p. 48 (PDF p. 13 of 15). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 September 2018.
    "Part 1 of 4"(PDF).Tabiteuea North 2008 Socio-Economic Profile (Report). May 2013 [2008]. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 September 2018.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Bailey, Eric (1977).The Christmas Island Story.Stacey International.
  • Boulagnon, Paul (2003).Emmanuel Rougier: des Isles d'Auvergne à l'Océanie (Fidji, Tahiti, Christmas Island).
  • Sheers, Owen (2008).Bomb Gone.Granta 101.
[edit]
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