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Kleptoparasitism

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Great frigatebirds(Fregata minor) chasing ared-footed booby(Sula sula) to steal its food

Kleptoparasitism(originally speltclepto-parasitism,[1][2]meaning "parasitismbytheft") is a form offeedingin which one animal deliberately takes food from another. The strategy isevolutionarily stablewhen stealing is less costly than direct feeding, such as when food is scarce or when victims are abundant. Many kleptoparasites arearthropods,especially bees and wasps, but including some true flies, dung beetles, bugs, and spiders.Cuckoo beesare specialized kleptoparasites which lay their eggs either on the pollen masses made by other bees, or on the insect hosts ofparasitoid wasps.They are an instance ofEmery's rule,which states that insect social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts. The behavior occurs, too, in vertebrates including birds such asskuas,which persistently chase other seabirds until they disgorge their food, and carnivorous mammals such asspotted hyenasandlions.Other species opportunistically indulge in kleptoparasitism.

Strategy[edit]

Kleptoparasitism is a feeding strategy where one animal deliberately steals food from another. This may be intraspecific, involving stealing from members of the same species, or interspecific, from members of other species.[3][4]The term denotes a form ofparasitisminvolvingtheft,from Greek κλέπτω (kléptō, 'steal').[5]The strategy has been widely studied inbirds;in four families, allseabirds,theFregatidae,Chionididae,Stercoraridae,andLaridae,it occurs in more than a quarter of the species.[6][4]

Such a strategy should only be followed if it isevolutionarily stable,meaning that it offers aselective advantageto individuals that practise it. Kleptoparasitism costs time and energy which could otherwise be spent directly on feeding, so this cost must be outweighed by the benefit in energy gained from the stolen food. Mathematical modelling suggests that when food is abundant, ordinary feeding is the best strategy; when food abundance falls below a critical level, kleptoparasitism suddenly becomes advantageous, and aggressive interactions become common. Similarly, when potential victims are rare or widely dispersed, the time needed to find them may not be justified by the food that might be stolen from them, resulting infrequency-dependent selection.[3][6]

Taxonomic distribution[edit]

Arthropods[edit]

Bees and wasps[edit]

Cuckoo bee from the genusNomada

There are many lineages ofcuckoo bees,all of which lay their eggs in the nest cells of otherbees,often within the same family.[7]Bombus bohemicus,for example, parasitises several other species in its genus, includingB. terrestris,B. lucorum,andB. cryptarum.[8]These are instances ofEmery's rule,named for the Italian entomologistCarlo Emery,which asserts thatsocial parasitesamong insects, including kleptoparasites, tend to be closely related to their hosts.[9][10]The largestmonophyleticlineage of kleptoparasitic bees isNomadinae(a subfamily ofApidae), which comprises several hundred species in 35 genera.[11]

Some bees and their parasites[7]
Host genus Parasite genus
Bombus Bombus(Psithyrus)
Anthophora Melecta,Zacosmia
Amegilla Thyreus
Megachile Coelioxys

Thecuckoo wasps(Chrysididae) lay their eggs in the nests ofpotterandmud dauberwasps. Other families ofwaspshave "cuckoo" species that parasitise related species, as for examplePolistes sulcifer,which parasitises a related species,P. dominula.[12][13]Numerous other wasp families have genera or larger lineages of which some or all members are kleptoparasitic (e.g., the genusCeropalesinPompilidaeand the tribeNyssoniniinCrabronidae).[7]Some of these species areinquilinesandbrood parasitesrather than kleptoparasites.[14]

Others are dubbed kleptoparasitoids, namelyparasitoidsthat select hosts that have been parasitized by another female. Kleptoparasitoids may make use of the punctures made by previous parasitoids on their hosts; may follow the trails or traces left by parasitoids to locate hosts; or use hosts already weakened by other parasitoids.[15]

Flies[edit]

Sarcophagasp. feeding on captured prey (Tipulidae) of a spider (video, 1 m 44 s)
Miltogramminefly (Craticulina seriata) is a kleptoparasite ofsand wasps,depositing its larvae on the food reserved for the larvae of the wasp

Sometrue flies(Diptera) are kleptoparasites; the strategy is especially common in the subfamilyMiltogramminaeof the familySarcophagidae.There are also some kleptoparasites in thefamiliesChloropidaeandMilichiidae.Some adult milichiids, for example, visitspider webswhere they scavenge on half-eatenstink bugs.Others are associated with robber flies (Asilidae), orCrematogasterants.[16]Flies in the genusBengalia(Calliphoridae) steal food and pupae transported byantsand are often found beside their foraging trails.[17]Musca albina(Muscidae) reportedly shows kleptoparasitic behaviour, laying eggs only in dung balls being interred by one of several co-occurring dung-rollingscarabspecies.[18]

Dung beetles[edit]

Scarabdung beetlesrelocate large amounts of vertebrate dung, rolling balls of the material to their nests for their larvae to feed on. Several smaller species of dung beetle do not gather dung themselves but take it from the nests of larger species. For example, species ofOnthophagusenter dung-balls whileScarabeusbeetles are making them.[19]

True bugs[edit]

Velia caprai(Ardennes,Belgium)

Many semiaquatic bugs (Heteroptera) are kleptoparasitic on their own species. In one study, whenever the bugVelia caprai(water cricket) took prey heavier than 7.9 g, other bugs of the same species joined it and successfully ate parts of the prey.[20]

Spiders[edit]

Argyrodes flavescenson the web ofArgiope pulchella

Kleptoparasiticspiders,which steal or feed on prey captured by other spiders, are known to occur in five families:

Vertebrates[edit]

Birds[edit]

A few bird species are specialist kleptoparasites, while many others are opportunistic.Skuas(including jaegers) andfrigatebirdsrely heavily on chasing other seabirds to obtain food. Other species—includingraptors,gulls,terns,coots,and someducksandshorebirds—do so opportunistically. Among opportunists such as theroseate tern,parent birds involved in kleptoparasitism are more successful in raising broods than non-kleptoparasitic individuals.[22][23]Bald eagleshave been seen attacking smaller raptors, such asospreys,to steal fish from them.[24]Amongpasserinebirds,masked shrikeshave been recorded stealing food fromwheatears,[25]andEurasian blackbirdshave been recorded stealing smashedsnailsfrom otherthrushes.[22]

Duringseabirdnesting seasons, frigatebirds soar aboveseabird colonies,waiting for parent birds to return to theirnestswith food for their young. As the returning birds approach the colony, the frigatebirds, which are fast and agile, swoop in to pursue them vigorously; they sometimes seizetropicbirdsby their long tail plumes. The namefrigatebird,as well as many of the frigatebirds' colloquial names, includingman-o'-war birdandpirate of the sea,denote this behaviour.[26]However, the amount of food obtained by kleptoparasitism in themagnificent frigatebirdmay be marginal.[27]

Gulls are both perpetrators and victims of opportunistic kleptoparasitism, particularly during the breeding season. While the victim is most often another member of the same species, other (principally smaller) gulls and terns can also be targeted. In theAmericas,asbrown pelicanssurface and empty the water from their bills, they sometimes have their food stolen byHeermann's gullsandlaughing gulls,which lurk nearby and grab escaping food items.[28]Great black-backed gullsare skilled kleptoparasites, stealing from other gulls and from raptors. Several species of gull steal food from humans, for example takeaway food at seaside resorts.[29]

Mammals[edit]

The relationship betweenspotted hyenasandlions,in which each species steals the other's kills,[30]is a form of kleptoparasitism.[20]Cheetahs are common targets. Bears, coyotes and wolves are very opportunistic and all have this behavior.Crab-eating macaqueshave also exhibited kleptoparasitic behaviors. Allhyenaspecies engage in this behavior when they can, as dojackals.[31]Human hunters may commonly take the remains of fresh kills from other carnivores, such as lions andEurasian lynx.[32][33][34]Risso's dolphinshave been observed charging "head-on" atsperm whales,causing them to open their mouths; it has been suggested that the observed harassment results in someregurgitation,and that the food is then eaten by the Risso's dolphins. The behaviour is rare and may be opportunistic.[35]

  • A cheetah has killed an impala (and eaten part of it), creating a target for kleptoparasitism.
    Acheetahhas killed animpala(and eaten part of it), creating a target for kleptoparasitism.
  • A little later, hyenas have driven off the cheetah and are feeding.
    A little later,hyenashave driven off the cheetah and are feeding.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Rothschild, M.;Clay, T. (1957).Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites.New York: Macmillan. p. 10.
  2. ^Proffitt, M., ed. (1997). "kleptoparasitism".Oxford English Dictionary. Additions Series.Vol. 3. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 145.ISBN978-0-19-860027-5.
  3. ^abBroom, Mark;Ruxton, Graeme D.(1998)."Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism".Annals of Human Genetics.62(5): 453–464.doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1998.ahg625_0453_5.x.S2CID56407575.
  4. ^abFurness, R. W. (1987). "Kleptoparasitism in seabirds". In Croxall, J. P. (ed.).Seabirds: feeding ecology and role in marine ecosystems.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521301787.
  5. ^Nishimura, K. (2010). "Kleptoparasitism and Cannibalism".Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior.Elsevier. pp. 253–258.doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045337-8.00279-5.ISBN9780080453378.
  6. ^abBrockmann, H. Jane; Barnard, C. J. (1979). "Kleptoparasitism in birds".Animal Behaviour.27:487–514.doi:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90185-4.S2CID53151684.
  7. ^abcSlater, Peter J. B.; Rosenblatt, Jay S.; Snowdon, Charles T.; et al. (30 January 2005).Advances in the Study of Behavior.Academic Press. p. 365.ISBN978-0-08-049015-1.
  8. ^Kreuter, Kirsten; Bunk, Elfi Bunk (2011). "How the social parasitic bumblebeeBombus bohemicussneaks into power of reproduction ".Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology.66(3): 475–486.doi:10.1007/s00265-011-1294-z.S2CID7124725.
  9. ^Deslippe, Richard (2010)."Social Parasitism in Ants".Nature Education Knowledge.Retrieved25 May2022.
  10. ^Emery, Carlo(1909). "Über den Ursprung der dulotischen, parasitischen und myrmekophilen Ameisen" [On the Origin of Dulotic, Parasitic, and Myrmecophilic Ants].Biologisches Centralblatt(in German).29:352–362.
  11. ^Roig-Alsina, A. (1991). "Cladistic analysis of the Nomadinae s. str. with description of a new genus (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae)".Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society.64(1): 23–37.JSTOR25085241.
  12. ^Dapporto, L.; Cervo, R.; Sledge, M.F.; Turillazzi, S. (2004). "Rank integration in dominance hierarchies of host colonies by the paper wasp social parasitePolistes sulcifer(Hymenoptera, Vespidae) ".Journal of Insect Physiology.50(2–3). Elsevier BV: 217–223.doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2003.11.012.PMID15019524.
  13. ^Ortolani, I.; Cervo, R. (2009)."Coevolution of daily activity timing in a host-parasite system".Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.96(2): 399–405.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01139.x.
  14. ^Erler, S.; Lattorff, H. M. G. (2010). "The degree of parasitism of the bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) by cuckoo bumblebees (Bombus(Psithyrus)vestalis) ".Insectes Sociaux.57(4): 371–377.doi:10.1007/s00040-010-0093-2.S2CID853556.
  15. ^Kraaijeveld, A. R. (1999)."Kleptoparasitism as an explanation for paradoxical oviposition decisions of the parasitoidAsobara tabida".Journal of Evolutionary Biology.12:129–133.doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00016.x.
  16. ^Wild, A.L. & Brake, I. 2009. Field observations onMilichia patriziiant-mugging flies (Diptera: Milichiidae: Milichiinae) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.African Invertebrates50(1): 205–212.[1]Archived2009-05-15 at theWayback Machine
  17. ^Sivinski, J., S. Marshall and E. Petersson (1999) Kleptoparasitism and phoresy in the diptera.Florida Entomologist82(2)[2]Archived2008-09-10 at theWayback Machine
  18. ^Marshall, S.A. & Pont, A.C. (2013). The kleptoparasitic habits ofMusca albinaWiedemann, 1830 (Diptera: Muscidae).African Invertebrates54(2): 427–430.[3]
  19. ^Hammond, P. M. (September 1976). "Kleptoparasitic Behaviour ofOnthophagus suturalisPeringuey (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) and Other Dung-Beetles ".The Coleopterists Bulletin.30(3): 245–249.JSTOR3999694.
  20. ^abErlandsson, Ann (1988). "Food sharing vs monopolising prey: a form of kleptoparasitism inVelia caprai(Heteroptera) ".Oikos.53(2): 203–206.Bibcode:1988Oikos..53..203E.doi:10.2307/3566063.JSTOR3566063.
  21. ^Coyl, F. A.; O'Shields, T. C.; Perlmutter, D. G. (1991)."Observations on the behaviour of the kleptoparasitic spider,Mysmenopsis furtiva(Araneae, Mysmenidae) "(PDF).Journal of Arachnology.19:62–66. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2006-05-13.Retrieved2006-07-11.
  22. ^abEhrlich, Paul R.;Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994).The Birdwatcher's Handbook.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-858407-5.
  23. ^Shealer, David A.; Spendelow, Jeffrey A.; Hatfield, Jeff S.; Nisbet, Ian C. T. (2005). "The adaptive significance of stealing in a marine bird and its relationship to parental quality".Behavioral Ecology.16(2): 371–376.doi:10.1093/beheco/ari008.hdl:10.1093/beheco/ari008.
  24. ^Jorde, D.G.; Lingle, G (1998)."Kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles wintering in South-Central Nebraska"(PDF).Journal of Field Ornithology.59(2): 183–188. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-08-10.Retrieved2007-08-21.
  25. ^Harris, Tony; Franklin, Kim (2000).Shrikes & Bush-Shrikes.London: Christopher Helm.ISBN0-7136-3861-3.
  26. ^Sibley, David(2001).The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behaviour.London: Christopher Helm.ISBN0-7136-6250-6.
  27. ^Calixto-Albarrán, Itzia; Osorno, José-Luis (2000)."The diet of the Magnificent Frigatebird during chick rearing".The Condor.102(3): 569–576.doi:10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0569:tdotmf]2.0.co;2.S2CID84078011.
  28. ^del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi, eds. (1996).Handbook of Birds of the World.Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.ISBN84-87334-20-2.
  29. ^Sample, Ian (7 August 2019)."Stare seagulls out to save your snacks, researcher says".The Guardian.Retrieved1 September2022.
  30. ^Estes, Richard D. (1999).The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals.Chelsea Green. p. 294.ISBN1-890132-44-6.
  31. ^Estes, op. cit., 281–295, 339–346
  32. ^Walker, Matt (24 July 2009)."People steal meat from wild lions".BBC Earth News.Retrieved2009-08-01.
  33. ^Schoe, Marjolein; de Iongh, Hans H.; Croes, Barbara M. (6 Jul 2009). "Humans displacing lions and stealing their food in Bénoué National Park, North Cameroon".African Journal of Ecology.47(3). Blackwell: 445.Bibcode:2009AfJEc..47..445S.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00975.x.
  34. ^Krofel, Miha; Kos, Ivan; Linnell, John; Odden, John; Teurlings, Ivonne (2008)."Human Kleptoparasitism on Eurasian Lynx (Lynx Lynx L.) in Slovenia and Norway"(PDF).Varstvo Narave.21:93–103. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2022-06-16.Retrieved2022-05-25.
  35. ^Smultea, Mari A.; Bacon, Cathy E.; Lomac-MacNair, Kate; Visser, Fleur; Bredvik, Jessica (2014). "Rare Mixed-Species Associations Between Sperm Whales and Risso's and Northern Right Whale Dolphins Off the Southern California Bight: Kleptoparasitism and Social Parasitism?".Northwestern Naturalist.95(1): 43–49.doi:10.1898/nwn13-11.1.ISSN1051-1733.S2CID86227330.

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