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Korean diaspora

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Korean diaspora
Total population
7,325,143 (2021)[1]
Regions with significant populations
United States2,633,777[1]
China2,350,422[1]
Japan818,865[1]
Canada237,364[1]
Uzbekistan175,865[1]
Russia168,526[1]
Australia158,103[1]
Vietnam156,330[1]
Kazakhstan109,495[1]
Germany47,428[1]
United Kingdom36,690[1]
Brazil36,540[1]
New Zealand33,812[1]
Philippines33,032[1]
France25,417[1]
Argentina22,847[1]
Singapore20,983[1]
Thailand18,130[1]
Kyrgyzstan18,106[1]
Indonesia17,297[1]
Malaysia13,667[1]
Ukraine13,524[1]
Sweden13,055[1]
Mexico11,107[1]
India10,674[1]
Cambodia10,608[1]
United Arab Emirates9,642[1]
Netherlands9,473[1]
Denmark8,694[1]
Norway7,744[1]
Guam5,016[2]
South Africa3,300
Chile2,510[3][full citation needed]
Peru1,500[4]
Sri Lanka948
Uruguay130
Languages
PredominantlyKorean,English,Chinese,JapaneseandRussian,among others
Religion
Predominantly:Irreligious
Minorities:Korean Buddhism,Korean shamanism,Cheondoism,Korean ConfucianismandChristianity(Roman Catholicism,ProtestantismandUnification Church)
Related ethnic groups
Koreans(includingNorth Koreans,South Koreans,Jejuans,Koryo-saram,Sakhalin Koreans),Manchus
Korean diaspora
Hangul
한인
Hanja
Revised Romanizationhanin
McCune–Reischauerhanin
North Korean name
Hangul
해외동포
Hanja
Revised Romanizationhaeoe dongpo
McCune–Reischauerhaeoe tongp'o
South Korean name
Hangul
재외동포
Hanja
Revised Romanizationjaeoe dongpo
McCune–Reischauerchaeoe tongp'o

TheKorean diasporaconsists of around 7.3 million people, both descendants of early emigrants from theKorean Peninsula,as well as more recent emigrants from Korea. Around 84.5% of overseasKoreanslive in just five countries: the United States, China, Japan, Canada, and Uzbekistan.[1]Other countries with greater than 0.5% Korean minorities include Brazil, Russia, Kazakhstan, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Indonesia. All of these figures include both permanent and temporary migrants.[5]

Terminology

[edit]

There are currently a number of official and unofficial appellations used by the authorities of the two Korean states as well as a number of Korean institutions for Korean nationals, expatriates and descendants living abroad. Thus, there is no single name for the Korean diaspora.

The historically used termgyopo(교포/ kiều bào, also spelledkyopo,meaning "nationals" ) has come to have negative connotations as referring to people who, as a result of living assojournersoutside the "home country", have lost touch with their Korean roots. As a result, others prefer to use the termdongpo(동포/ đồng bào, meaning "brethren" or "people of the same ancestry" ).Dongpohas a moretransnationalimplication, emphasising links among various overseas Korean groups, whilegyopohas more of a purely national connotation referring to the Korean state.[6][7]Another recently popularized term isgyomin(교민/ kiều dân, meaning "immigrants" ), although it is usually reserved for Korean-born citizens that have moved abroad in search of work, and as such is rarely used as a term to refer to the entire diaspora.

In North Korea, Korean nationals living outside Korea are calledhaeoe gungmin(해외국민), whereas South Korea uses the termjaeoe gungmin(재외국민) to refer to entire Korean diaspora. Both terms translate to "overseas national(s)".[8]

History

[edit]

Prior to the modern era, Korea had been a territorially stablepolityfor centuries.[9]Significant migration out of Korea did not begin until the late 19th century.[10]

Japanese and Portuguese slave trade

[edit]
Main article:Slavery in Korea § Japanese and Portuguese slave trade

During the 1592–1598Japanese invasions of Korea,tens of thousands of enslaved Koreans were taken from Korea to Japan, with the first shipment being taken in October 1592.[11]Some were allowed to return to Korea, but many were made to stay in Japan, with the famous example of Korean samuraiWakita Naokata(Kim Yŏ-ch'ŏl).[12]Some were made saints in the 17th-century (205 Martyrs of Japan).[13]The Portuguese then sent some of them elsewhere, namelyPortuguese Macau.[14]A community of several thousand Koreans formed near theChurch of Saint Paul.[15][16]Others were sent toManilain theSpanish Philippines,[17]at least one toGoa,[18]and likely one (Thome Corea) toAmbon Island,where hedied in 1623.[19]AnAntónio Coreawas taken toFlorenceandRome,[17]and is possibly the first Korean to set foot in Europe.[20]

The international trade of Korean slaves declined shortly after the end of the Japanese invasions due to a number of prohibitions from various Japanese, Catholic, and Spanish and Portuguese colonial authorities. Despite the near halt in their export from Japan, their labor continued to be used.[21]

Rise

[edit]

Large-scale emigration from Korea began as early as the mid-1860s, mainly into theRussian Far Eastand Northeast China; these emigrants became the ancestors of the two millionKoreans in Chinaand several hundred thousandKoryo-saram.[22][page needed][23][page needed]

Korea under Japanese rule

[edit]
Main article:Korea under Japanese rule

During theJapanese colonial periodof 1910–1945, Koreans were often recruited or forced intoindentured servitudeto work inmainland Japan,Karafuto Prefecture(Sakhalin) andManchukuo,especially in the 1930s and early 1940s; the ones who chose to remain in Japan at the end of the war became known asZainichi Koreans,while the roughly 40 thousand who were trapped in Karafuto after the Soviet invasion are typically referred to asSakhalin Koreans.[24][25]According to the statistics at Immigration Bureau of Japan, there were 901,284 Koreans resident in Japan as of 2005,of whom 515,570 were permanent residents and another 284,840 were naturalized citizens.[26][27]

Aside from migration within theEmpire of Japanor its puppet state ofManchukuo,some Koreans also escaped Japanese-ruled territory entirely, heading to Shanghai, a major centre of theKorean independence movementor to the already-established Korean communities of the Russian Far East. However, the latter would find themselvesdeported to Central Asia[28]in 1938.

After independence

[edit]

Korea gained its independence after theSurrender of Japanin 1945 afterWorld War IIbut was divided into North and South. Korean emigration to the United States is known to have begun as early as 1903, but theKorean Americancommunity did not grow to a significant size until after the passage of theImmigration Reform Act of 1965.[29]Between 1.5 and 2 million Koreans now live in the United States, mostly in metropolitan areas.[1][30]A handful are descended from laborers who migrated to Hawaii in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A significant number are descended fromorphansof theKorean War,in which the United States was a major ally of South Korea and provided the bulk of the United Nations troops that served there. Thousands wereadoptedby American (mostlyCaucasian) families in the years following the war, when their plight was covered on television. The vast majority, however, immigrated or are descended from those who immigrated after theHart-Cellar Actof 1965 abolished national immigration quotas.

After the establishment of thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1949, ethnic Koreans in China,Joseonjokin Korean andChaoxianzuinMandarin Chinesebecame officially[31]recognised as one of the 56ethnic groupsof the country. They are considered to be one of the "major minorities". Their population grew to about 2 million; they stayed mostly in Northeastern China, where their ancestors had initially settled. Their largest population was concentrated in theYanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecturein Jilin, where they numbered 854,000 in 1997.[23][32]

Europe and other parts of the Americas were also minor destinations for post-war Korean emigration. Korean immigration to South America was documented as early as the 1950s; North Korean prisoners of war choose to emigrate to Chile in 1953 and Argentina in 1956 under the auspices of theRed Cross.However, the majority of Korean settlement occurred in the late 1960s. As the South Korean economy continued to expand in the 1980s, investors from South Korea came to South America and established small businesses in the textiles industry.[33]Korean immigrants were increasingly settling in urban centers of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela, although return migration from South America back to Korea has ensued since then.

In the 1970s, however, Japan and the United States remained the top two destinations for South Korean emigrants, with each receiving more than a quarter of all emigration; the Middle East became the third most popular destination, with more than 800,000Koreans going to Saudi Arabiabetween 1975 and 1985 and another 26,000Koreans going to Iran.In contrast, aside from Germany (1.7% of all South Korean emigration in 1977) and Paraguay (1.0%), no European or American destinations were even in the top ten for emigrants.[34]The cultural and stylistic diversity of the Korean diaspora is documented and celebrated in the work of fine-art photographerCYJO,in her Kyopo Project, a photographic study of over 200 people of Korean descent.

[edit]
Bergen County,New Jersey,across theGeorge Washington BridgefromNew York City,is a growing hub and home toall of the nation's top ten municipalities by percentage of Korean population,[35]led (above) byPalisades Park,[36]the municipality with the highestdensityof ethnicKoreansin theWestern Hemisphere.Displaying ubiquitousHangulsignage and known as theKorean village,[37]Palisades Park uniquely comprises a Korean majority (52% in 2010) of its population,[38][39]with both thehighest Korean-American density and percentageof any municipality in the United States.

South Korean media reports on the riots increased public awareness of the long working hours and harsh conditions faced by immigrants to the United States in the 1990s.[40]Although immigration to the United States briefly became less attractive as a result of the1992 Los Angeles riots,during which manyKorean Americanimmigrants saw their businesses destroyed by looters, the Los Angeles andNew York Citymetropolitan areasstill contain by far the largest populations of ethnic Koreans outside Korea[41]and continue to attract the largest share of Korean immigrants. In fact, the per capita Korean population ofBergen County,New Jersey,in theNew York Metropolitan Area,was 6.3% by the2010 United States Census[42][43](increasing to 6.9% by the 2011American Community Survey),[44]is the highest of any county in the United States,[43]includingall of the nation's top ten municipalities by percentage of Korean population per the 2010 U.S. Census,[35]while the concentration of Korean Americans inPalisades Park, New Jersey,within Bergen County, is both thehighest density and percentageof any municipality in the United States,[45]at 52% of the population.[42]

Since the early 2000s, a substantial number of affluent Korean American professionals have settled in Bergen County, which is home to North American headquarters operations of South KoreanchaebolsincludingSamsung,[46]LG Corp,[47]andHanjin Shipping,[48]and have founded various academically and communally supportive organizations, including the Korean Parent Partnership Organization at theBergen County Academiesmagnethigh school[49]and The Korean-American Association of New Jersey.[50]Holy Name Medical CenterinTeaneck, New Jersey,within Bergen County, has undertaken an ambitious effort to provide comprehensive health care services tounderinsuredand uninsured Korean patients from a wide area with its growingKorean Medical Program,drawing over 1,500 ethnic Korean patients to its annual health festival.[51][52][53][54]Bergen County's Broad AvenueKoreatown in Palisades Park[55]has emerged as a dominant nexus of Korean American culture,[56]has been referred to as a "Korean food walk of fame",[57]with diverse offerings,[56]incorporating the highest concentration of Korean restaurants within a one-mile radius in the United States[citation needed]and Broad Avenue has evolved into aKorean dessertdestination as well;[58]and its Senior Citizens Center in Palisades Park provides a popular gathering place where even Korean grandmothers were noted to follow the dance trend of the worldwide viral hitGangnam Styleby South Korean "K-pop"rapperPsyin September 2012;[59]while the nearbyFort Lee Koreatownis also emerging as such. TheChusokKorean Thanksgivingharvest festivalhas become an annual tradition in Bergen County, attended by several tens of thousands.[60]In January 2019,Christopher Chungwas sworn in as the first Korean mayor of Palisades Park and the first mayor from the Korean diaspora in Bergen County.[61]

Bergen County's growing Korean community[62][63][64]was cited by county executive Kathleen Donovan in the context ofHackensack, New Jerseyattorney Jae Y. Kim's appointment to Central Municipal Court judgeship in January 2011.[65]Subsequently, in January 2012, theNew Jersey GovernorChris Christie nominated attorney Phillip Kwon of Bergen County forNew Jersey Supreme Courtjustice,[66][67][68]although this nomination was rejected by the state's Senate Judiciary Committee,[69]and in July 2012, Kwon was appointed instead as deputygeneral counselof thePort Authority of New York and New Jersey.[70]According toThe Recordof Bergen County, the U.S. Census Bureau has determined the county's Korean American population – 2010 census figures put it at 56,773[71][72](increasing to 63,247 by the 2011American Community Survey)[44]– has grown enough to warrant language assistance during elections[42]and Bergen County's Koreans have earned significant political respect.[73][74][75]As of May 2014, Korean Americans had garnered at least four borough council seats in Bergen County.[76]Described as a historic event, the US$6 million Korean Community Center opened inTenafly, New Jerseyin January 2015, aimed at integrating Bergen County's Korean community into the mainstream.[77]

With the development of the South Korean economy, the focus of emigration from Korea began to shift from developed nations towards developing nations, prior to repatriation back to Korea. With the 1992 normalisation of diplomatic relations between China and South Korea, many citizens of South Korea started to settle instead in China, attracted by business opportunities generated by thereform and opening upof China and the low cost of living. Large new communities of South Koreans have formed in Beijing, Shanghai, andQingdao;as of 2006,their population is estimated to be between 300,000 and 400,000.[78]There is also a small community ofKoreans in Hong Kong,mostly migrant workers and their families; according to Hong Kong's 2001 census, they numbered roughly 5,200, making them the 12th-largestethnic minoritygroup.[79]Southeast Asia has also seen an influx of South Koreans.Koreans in Vietnamhave grown in number to around 30,000 since the 1992 normalisation of diplomatic relations, making them Vietnam's second-largest foreign community after the Taiwanese.[80]Korean migration to the Philippinesincreased in the early 2000s due to the tropical climate and low cost of living compared to South Korea, although this diaspora has declined since 2010; 370,000 Koreans visited the country in 2004 and roughly 46,000 Korean immigrants live there permanently.[81]Though smaller, the number of Koreans in Cambodia has also grown rapidly, almost quadrupling between 2005 and 2009.[1]They mostly reside inPhnom Penh,with a smaller number inSiam Reap.They are largely investors involved in the construction industry, though there are also some missionaries and NGO workers.[82]Koreatown, ManhattaninNew York Cityhas become described as the "KoreanTimes Square"and has emerged as the international economic outpost for the Koreanchaebol.[83]

Return migration

[edit]

Koreans born or settled overseas have been migrating back to both North and South Korea ever since the restoration ofKorean independence;perhaps the most famous example isKim Jong-Il,born inVyatskoye, Khabarovsk Krai,Russia, where his fatherKim Il-sunghad been serving in theRed Army.[84][85]Postwar migrations of Koreans from throughout theJapanese Empireback to the Korean Peninsula were characterized both bureaucratically and popularly as "repatriation", a restoration of the congruence between the Korean population and its territory.[86]The pre-colonial Korean state had not clearly laid out the boundaries or criteria determining who was a citizen; however, theJapanese colonial governmenthad registered all Koreans in a separatefamily registry,a separation which continued even if an individual Korean migrated toManchuriaor Japan; thus North and South Korea had a clear legal definition of who was a repatriating Korean, and did not have to create any special legal categories of national membership for them, the way Germany had done forpost-World War II German expellees.[87]There has also been a return migration of Korean Brazilians back to Korea, spurred by the increasing violence inBrazil.

The largest-scale repatriation activities took place in Japan, whereChongryonsponsored the return ofZainichi Koreanresidents to North Korea; beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, with a trickle of repatriates continuing until as late as 1984, nearly 90,000 Zainichi Koreans resettled in the reclusive communist state, though their ancestral homes were in South Korea. However, word of the difficult economic and political conditions filtered back to Japan, decreasing the popularity of this option. Around one hundred such repatriates are believed to have laterescaped from North Korea;the most famous isKang Chol-Hwan,who published a book about his experience,The Aquariums of Pyongyang.[88][89]South Korea, however, was a popular destination for Koreans who had settled inManchukuoduring the colonial period; returnees from Manchukuo such asPark Chung HeeandChun Doo-hwanhad a large influence on the process of nation-building in South Korea.[90]

Until the 1980s,Soviet Koreansdid not repatriate in any large numbers and played little role in defining the boundaries of membership in the Korean nation.[91]However, roughly 1,000 Sakhalin Koreans are also estimated to have independently repatriated to the North in the decades after the end of World War II, when returning to their ancestral homes in the South was not an option due to the lack of Soviet relations with the South and Japan's refusal to grant them transit rights. In 1985, Japan began to fund the return of Sakhalin Koreans to South Korea; however, only an additional 1,500 took this offer, with the vast majority of the population remaining on the island ofSakhalinor moving to theRussian Far Eastinstead.[92]

With the rise of the South Korean economy in the 1980s, economic motivations became increasingly prevalent in overseas Koreans' decisions of whether to repatriate and in which part of the peninsula to settle. 356,790Chinese citizens have migrated to South Koreasince thereform and opening upof China; almost two-thirds are estimated to beChaoxianzu.[93]Similarly, someKoryo-saramfrom Central Asia have also moved to South Korea as guest workers, to take advantage of the high wages offered by the growing economy; remittances from South Korea to Uzbekistan, for example, were estimated to exceed US$100 million in 2005.[94]Return migration through arranged marriage is another option, portrayed in the 2005South Korean filmWedding Campaign,directed by Hwang Byung-kook.[95]However, the Koryo-saram often face the most difficulty integrating into Korean society due to their poor command of theKorean languageand the fact that their dialect,Koryo-mar,differs significantly from theSeoul dialectconsidered standard in the South.[94]

Return migration from the United States has been much less common than that from Japan or theformer Soviet Union,as the economic push factor was far less than in 1960s Japan or post-Soviet collapse Central Asia.Korean Americanreturn migrants have predominantly been entertainers who were either recruited by South Korean talent agencies or had chosen to move there due to the lack of opportunities in the United States; prominent examples includeJae Chong,Johan KimandJoon Lee(ofR&BtrioSolid), singersJoon Park(of K-pop groupg.o.d) andBrian Joo[96](ofR&BduoFly to the Sky), hip hop artist and songwriterJay Parkand model and actorDaniel Henney(who initially spoke no Korean).[97][98][99]

Members of the Korean diaspora are able to apply to be buried in Korea upon their death as well.National Mang-Hyang CemeteryinCheonannow holds the remains of Koreans from around the world, including those who died decades before the cemetery's creation in 1976.[100][101]

North Korean diaspora

[edit]

These are the numbers of North Korean citizens living aboard in various countries:

Destination Number of North Korean citizens Year Ref.
Italy 74 2024 [102]
Sweden 11 2023 [103]
Japan 24,305 2023 [104]
Russia 143 2019 [105]
Ukraine 11 2020 [106]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Sources

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