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Ko xing a

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Zheng Chenggong
Trịnh thành công
The mid-17th century paintingThe Portrait of Ko xing a
Prince of Yanping
ReignMay or June 1655 – 23 June 1662
PredecessorNone
SuccessorZheng Jing
Zheng Xi (as Lord of Tungtu)
BornZheng Sen
27 August 1624(1624-08-27)
Hirado,Hizen Province,Japan
Died23 June 1662(1662-06-23)(aged 37)
Anping,Kingdom of Tungning
Burial
Tomb of Zheng Chenggong ( Trịnh thành công mộ; in present-dayNan'an,Quanzhou, Fu gian )
SpouseDong You, Princess Wu of Chao[1]
IssueZheng Jingand nine other sons,
four daughters
Posthumous name
Prince Wu of Chao ( triều Võ Vương )
HouseKo xing a
DynastyTungning
FatherZheng Zhilong
MotherTagawa Matsu
Ko xing a
Traditional ChineseQuốc họ gia
HokkienPOJKok- sắc ng-iâ
Kok-sìⁿ-iâ
Literal meaningLord of the Imperial Surname
Zheng Chenggong
Traditional ChineseTrịnhThành công
HokkienPOJTīⁿ Sêng-kong
Zheng Sen
Traditional ChineseTrịnhSâm
HokkienPOJTīⁿ Sim

Zheng Chenggong, Prince of Yanping(Chinese:Trịnh thành công;pinyin:Zhèng Chénggōng;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tīⁿ Sêng-kong;27 August 1624 – 23 June 1662), better known internationally asKo xing a(Chinese:Quốc họ gia;pinyin:Guóxìngyé;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Kok- sắc ng-iâ), was aSouthern Minggeneral who resisted theQing conquest of Chinain the 17th century, fighting them on China's southeastern coast.

In 1661, Ko xing adefeatedtheDutchoutposts onTaiwan[2][3]and established a dynasty, theHouse of Ko xing a,which ruled part of the island as theKingdom of Tungningfrom 1661 to 1683.

Biography[edit]

Early years[edit]

Zheng Chenggong was born in 1624 inHirado,Hizen Province,Japan, toZheng Zhilong,[4]aChinesemerchant,[5]and aJapanesewoman[6]known only by her surname "Tagawa,"[7]probablyTagawa Matsu.[8]He was raised there until the age of seven with the Japanese nameFukumatsu( phúc tùng )[9][10]and then moved toFu gianprovince of Ming dynastyChina.[11]

In 1638, Zheng became aXiucai(Tú tài,lit. "successful candidate" ) in theimperial examinationand became one of the twelveLinshansheng(Lẫm thiện sinh) ofNan'an.In 1641, Ko xing a married the niece of Dong Yangxian, an official who was aJinshifromHui'an.In 1644, Ko xing a studied at theGuozi gian(Imperial University), where he met the scholarQian Qianyiand became his student.[12][13]

In 1644, following the fall ofBeijingto rebels led byLi Zicheng,theChongzhen Emperorhanged himself on a tree in modern-dayJingshan Parkin Beijing. Manchu armies aided byWu Sangui's forces defeated the rebels and took the city. The Ming remnant forces retreated toNanjingwhere they put Prince Fu on the throne as theHongguang Emperorin an attempt to continue theMing dynasty in the south.The next year, the Manchu armies led byDodoadvanced south and conqueredYangzhouand Nanjing while the Ming leader defending Yangzhou,Shi Kefa,was killed and the Hongguang emperor was captured and executed.[citation needed]

Under the Longwu Emperor[edit]

In 1645, the Prince of Tang was installed on the throne of theSouthern Mingas theLongwu Emperorwith support fromZheng Zhilongand his family.[14]The Longwu Emperor established his court inFuzhou,which was controlled by the Zhengs. In the later part of the year,Prince Luproclaimed himself regent (Giám quốc) inShao xingand established his own court there. Although Prince Lu and Longwu's regimes stemmed from the same dynasty, each pursued different goals.

Owing to the natural defenses of Fu gian and the military resources of theZheng family,the emperor was able to remain safe for some time.[15]The Longwu Emperor granted Zheng Zhilong's son, Zheng Sen, a new given name,Chenggong(Thành công;Chénggōng;Sêng-kong;'success'), and the title ofKo xing a( "Lord of the Imperial Surname" ).[15]One of his cousins also had it.[16]

In 1646, Ko xing a first led the Ming armies to resist the Manchu invaders and won the favor of the Longwu Emperor. The Longwu Emperor's reign in Fuzhou was brief, as Zheng Zhilong refused to support his plans for a counteroffensive against the rapidly expanding forces of the newly establishedQing dynastyby the Manchus. Zheng Zhilong ordered the defending general of Xianxia Pass (Tiên hà quan), Shi Fu (a.k.a. Shi Tianfu, a relative ofShi Lang), to retreat toFuzhoueven when Qing armies approached Fu gian. For this reason, the Qing army faced little resistance when it conquered the north of the pass. In September 1646, Qing armies broke through the inadequately defended mountain passes and entered Fu gian. Zheng Zhilong retreated to his coastal fortress and the Longwu Emperor faced the Qing armies alone. Longwu's forces were destroyed; he was captured and was executed in October 1646.[17]

Zheng Zhilong's surrender and the death of Tagawa[edit]

The Qing forces sent envoys to meet Zheng Zhilong secretly and offered to appoint him as the governor of both Fu gian andGuangdongprovinces if he would surrender to the Qing. Zheng Zhilong agreed and ignored the objections of his family, surrendering himself to the Qing forces in Fuzhou on 21 November 1646.[18]Ko xing a and his uncles were left as the successors to the leadership of Zheng Zhilong's military forces. Ko xing a operated outsideXiamenand recruited many to join his cause in a few months. He used the superiority of his naval forces to launch amphibious raids on Manchu-occupied territory in Fu gian and he managed to takeTong'aninQuanzhouprefecture in early 1647. However, Ko xing a's forces lacked the ability to defend the newly occupied territory.[19]

Following the fall of Tong'an to Zheng, the Manchus launched a counterattack in the spring of 1647, during which they stormed the Zheng family's hometown ofAnping.Ko xing a's mother, Lady Tagawa, had come from Japan in 1645 to join her family in Fu gian (Ko xing a's younger brother, Tagawa Shichizaemon, remained in Japan).[20]She did not follow her husband to surrender to the Qing dynasty. She was caught by Manchu forces in Anping and committed suicide after refusal to submit to the enemy, according to traditional accounts.[21]

Resistance to the Qing[edit]

Zheng Chenggong statue in Xiamen, Fu gian, China. The granite statue is15.7 mtall and weighs1617 tons.[22]

By 1650, Ko xing a was strong enough to establish himself as the head of theZheng family.[21]He pledged allegiance to theYongli Emperorof Southern Ming, who created him Prince ofYanping( duyên bình vương ).[23]The Yongli Emperor was fleeing from the Manchus with a motley court and hastily assembled army. Despite one fruitless attempt, Ko xing a was unable to do anything to aid the last Ming emperor.[21]Instead, he decided to concentrate on securing his own position on the southeast coast.

Ko xing a had a series of military successes in 1651 and 1652 that increased the Qing government's anxiety over the threat he posed.[24]Zheng Zhilong wrote a letter to his son fromBeijing,presumably at the request of theShunzhi Emperorand the Qing government, urging his son to negotiate with the Manchurians. The long series of negotiations between Ko xing a and the Qing dynasty lasted until November 1654. The negotiations ultimately failed. The Qing government then appointed Prince Jidu (son ofJirgalang) to lead an attack on Ko xing a's territory after this failure.[25]

On 9 May 1656, Jidu's armies attackedKinmen(Quemoy), an island near Xiamen that Ko xing a had been using to train his troops. Partly as a result of a major storm, the Manchus were defeated, and they lost most of their fleet in the battle.[26]Ko xing a had sent one of his naval commanders to captureZhoushanisland prior to Jidu's attack,[27]and now that the Manchus were temporarily without an effective naval force in the Fu gian area, Ko xing a was free to send a huge army to Zhoushan, which he intended to use as a base to capture Nanjing.

Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Ko xing a announced the final battle in Nanjing ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the Dutch at theBattle of Liaoluo Bay,throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Ko xing a's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the Grand Canal leading to possible starvation in Beijing caused such fear that the Manchus considered returning to Manchuria and abandoning China according to a 1671 account by a French missionary.[28]The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering abandoning Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Ko xing a's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Ko xing a which he himself was preparing to do. Ko xing a's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Ko xing a may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing.[29]

Ko xing a's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Ko xing a's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements — though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Ko xing a's forces were defeated and slipped back to the ships which had brought them.[30]

In Taiwan[edit]

Image of Ko xing a Temple in Tainan
Extent of territory held by Ko xing a (red), sphere of influence (pink)
Bronze coin minted in Nagasaki for Ko xing a's forces, inscribed Yong Li Tong Bao in seal script

In 1661, Ko xing a led his troops on alandingatLakjemuyse[31]to attack the Dutch colonists inDutch Formosa.[32][33]Ko xing a said to the Dutch "Hitherto this island had always belonged to China, and the Dutch had doubtless been permitted to live there, seeing that the Chinese did not require it for themselves; but requiring it now, it was only fair that Dutch strangers, who came from far regions, should give way to the masters of the island."[34]

TheTaiwanese Aboriginaltribes, who were previously allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during theGuo Huaiyi Rebellionin 1652, now turned against the Dutch during theSiege of Fort Zeelandiaby defecting to Ko xing a's Chinese forces.[35]The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Ko xing a after he offered them amnesty and proceeded to work for the Chinese, beheading Dutch people. The frontier Aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on 17 May 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule by hunting down Dutch people and beheading them and by destroying Dutch Protestant school textbooks.[36]

On 1 February 1662, theDutchGovernor of Formosa,Frederick Coyett,surrenderedFort Zeelandiato Ko xing a. According to Frederick Coyett's own self-justifying account written after the siege, Ko xing a's life was saved at the end of the siege by a certain Hans Jurgen Radis of Stockaert, a Dutch defector who strongly advised him against visiting the ramparts of the fort after he had taken it, which Radis knew would be blown up by the retreating Dutch forces.[37]This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no mention of any defector. In the peace treaty, Ko xing a was styled "Lord Teibingh Tsiante Teysiancon Koxin" (simplified Chinese:Đại minh chiêu thảo đại tướng quân quốc họ;traditional Chinese:Đại minh chiêu thảo đại tướng quân quốc họ;pinyin:Dàmíng Zhāotǎo Dàjiāngjūn Guóxìng;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tāibêng Chiauthó Tāichiang-kun Kok-sìⁿ;lit.'Great MingCommander in Chief of the Punitive Expedition (Lord) Imperial-Surname').[38]This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule on Taiwan. Ko xing a then devoted himself to transforming Taiwan into a military base for loyalists who wanted to restore the Ming dynasty.

Ko xing a formulated a plan to give oxen and farming tools and teach farming techniques to the Taiwanese Aboriginals, giving them Ming gowns and caps and gifting tobacco to Aboriginals who were gathering in crowds to meet and welcome him as he visited their villages after he defeated the Dutch.[39]

In the Philippines[edit]

Main article:Spanish–Moro conflict § Chinese threat to the Spanish and 1663 Chinese rebellion

In 1662, Ko xing a's forces raided several towns in thePhilippines.Ko xing a's chief advisor was an Italian friar namedVittorio Riccio,whom he sent toManilato demand tribute from the colonial government of theSpanish East Indies,threatening to expel the Spaniards if his demands were not met.[40]The Spanish refused to pay the tribute and reinforced the garrisons around Manila, but the planned attack never took place due to Ko xing a's sudden death in that year after expelling the Dutch from Taiwan.[41]

Ko xing a's threat to invade the islands and expel the Spanish was animportant factor in the Spanish failure to conquertheMuslimMoro peopleinMindanao.The threat of Chinese invasion forced the Spanish to withdraw their forces to Manila. They immediately evacuated their fort onZamboangainMindanaofollowing Ko xing a's threats. They left some troops inJoloand byLake Lanaoto engage the Moro in protracted conflict. They permanently abandoned their colony in theMaluku Islands(Moluccas) and withdraw their soldiers from there to Manila.

Tonio Andradejudged that Ko xing a would most likely have been able to defeat the Spanish if the threatened invasion had taken place.[42]

Death[edit]

Ko xing a died ofmalariain June 1662, only a few months after defeating the Dutch in Taiwan, at the age of 37. There were speculations that he died in a sudden fit of madness when his officers refused to carry out his orders to execute his sonZheng Jing.Zheng Jing had had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her.[43]Zheng Jing succeeded his father as theKing of Tungning.

As he descended into death, Ko xing a relented and agreed to let his son Zheng Jing succeed him. Ko xing a died as he passed into delirium and madness and expressed his regrets to his family and father.[44]

Family[edit]

Main article:House of Ko xing a
A portrait of Zheng Chenggong painted by Huang Zi hoàng tử

Zheng Chenggong’s short but eventful career was characterized by family tension and conflicting loyalties. The title of Ko xing a ( "Lord of the Imperial Surname" ) was one that Zheng himself used during his lifetime to emphasize his status as an adopted son of the deposed imperial house, so it was also a declaration of ongoing support to the Ming dynasty.[45]Despite his deliberate self-identification as the noble, loyal vassal of a vanquished master, Ko xing a’s actual relationship with the Longwu Emperor lasted only twelve months or so, beginning in September 1645 and ending with the Emperor's death the following year.[46]Although many secondary sources claim that the two men shared a "close bond of affection", there is an absence of any reliable contemporary evidence on Ko xing a’s relationship with the Longwu Emperor.[47]

In contrast, Ko xing a's father Zheng Zhilong left his Japanese wife not long after the birth of his son;[48]Ko xing a was a boy of seven when he finally joined his father on the Fu gian ese coast.[49]It seems that Zheng Zhilong recognized his son’s talent and encouraged him in his studies and the pursuit of a career as a scholar-official, which would legitimize the power theZheng familyhad acquired, using sometimes questionable means.[12]Zheng Zhilong’s defection to the Qing must have seemed opportunistic and in stark contrast to Ko xing a’s continued loyalty to the Ming. But it is difficult to deny that in refusing to submit to the Qing, Ko xing a was risking the life of his father, and that the subsequent death of Zheng Zhilong could only be justified by claiming loyalty to the Ming.[50]It has even been suggested that Ko xing a’s fury at the incestuous relationship between his son, Zheng Jing, and a younger son’s wet nurse was due to the fact that strict Confucian morality had played such a crucial role in justifying his lack of filial behaviour.[47]

The one possible exception to this may have been his relationship with his mother, which has generally been described as being extremely affectionate, particularly in Chinese and Japanese sources.[51]Their time together, however, was apparently very short – despite frequent entreaties from Zheng Zhilong for her to join him in China,[52]Ko xing a’s mother was only reunited with her son some time in 1645, and a year later she was killed when the Qing took Xiamen.[53]

A portrait of Zheng was in the hands of Yuchun who was his descendant in the eight generation.[54]

Ko xing a's descendants live in both mainland China and Taiwan and descendants of his brother Shichizaemon live in Japan. His descendants through his grandsonZheng Keshuangserved as Bannermen in Beijing until 1911 when the Xinhai revolution broke out and the Qing dynasty fell, after which they moved back to Anhai and Nan'an in southern Fu gian. They still live there to this day.[55]His descendants through one of his sons Zheng Kuan live in Taiwan.[56]

One of Ko xing a's descendants on mainland China, Zheng Xiaoxuan Trịnh Hiểu lam, fought against the Japanese invaders in theSecond Sino-Japanese War.His sonZheng Chouyu[zh]was born in Shandong in mainland China and called himself a "child of the resistance" against Japan and he became a refugee during the war, moving from place to place across China to avoid the Japanese. He moved to Taiwan in 1949 and focuses his poetry work on building stronger ties between Taiwan and mainland China.[57]Zheng Chouyu identified as Chinese. He felt alienated after he was forced to move to Taiwan in 1949 which was previously under Japanese rule and felt strange and foreign to him.[58]Chouyu is Ko xing a's 11th generation descendant and his original name is Zheng Wenji.[59]

"Ko xing a: Chronicles of the Tei Family" was written by R. A. B. Posonby-Fane.[60]

Consorts and issue[edit]

  • Dong You,Queen of Tungning ( đổng hữu )
    • Zheng Jing( Trịnh kinh duyên bình vương; 25 October 1642 – 17 March 1681), Prince of Yanping, first son
    • Zheng Cong ( phụ chính công Trịnh thông ), Duke Fu of Zheng, second son
    • Zheng Yu ( Trịnh dụ;1660–1737), seventh son
  • Lady Chuang ( trang thị )
    • Zheng Ming ( Trịnh Minh ), third son
    • Zheng Rui ( Trịnh Duệ ), fourth son
    • Zheng Zhi ( Trịnh trí;1660–1695), fifth son
  • Lady Wen ( Ôn thị )
    • Zheng Kuan ( Trịnh khoan ), sixth son
    • Zheng Rou ( Trịnh nhu ), ninth son
  • Lady Shi ( sử thị )
    • Zheng Wen ( Trịnh ôn;1662–1704), eight son
  • Lady Chai ( Thái thị )
    • Zheng Fa ( Trịnh phát ), tenth son
  • Unknown:
    • four daughters

Concubine[edit]

In 1661, during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Ko xing a executed Dutch missionaryAntonius Hambroekand took his teenage daughter as a concubine.[61][62]Other Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their "wives".[63]In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[64]

Personality[edit]

Ko xing a was reputed to be mentally unstable: to have a vicious temper and a tendency towards ordering executions. While this might be explained by the trauma of his family being killed by the Qing army and his mother's reported suicide (in order to prevent capture by the Qing), it was also speculated that he suffered from syphilis, a suspicion held by a Dutch doctor, Christian Beyer, who treated him.[65]

Vittorio Riccio, aDominicanmissionary who knew Ko xing a,[66][better source needed]noted that Ko xing a held samurai ideals on bravery, used "feigned and hearty laughter" to show anger, and adhered tobushidobecause of his samurai training and his Japanese upbringing.[67]One Spanish missionary proffered a personal opinion that his bad temper and reported propensity for violence was due to Japanese heritage; however, this same missionary's account of the number of executions attributed to Ko xing a was greatly exaggerated.[68]

Ko xing a suffered from "depressive insanity" and mental illness according to Dr. Li Yengyue.[69][70]

Modern-day legacy and influences[edit]

Statue of Ko xing a inFort Zeelandia,Anping, Tainan, Taiwan


Worship[edit]

It is debated whether he was clean-shaven or wore a beard.[71]

Ko xing a's legacy is treated similarly on each side of theTaiwan Strait.Ko xing a is worshiped as a god in coastal China[clarification needed],especiallyFu gian,byoverseas ChineseinSoutheast Asiaand inTaiwan.[72]There is atemple dedicated to Ko xing a and his motherinTainan City,Taiwan. TheNational Cheng Kung Universityin Tainan, one of the most prestigious universities in Taiwan, is named after him.

Ko xing a's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. TheHongmenare associated with them.[73]

Tokugawa Japan imported books from Qing China including works on the Zheng family. The Qing built a shrine to commemorate Ko xing a to counteract the Japanese and French in Taiwan in the 19th century.[74]Zheng Juzhong's books Zheng Chenggong zhuan was imported to Japan and reprinted in 1771.[75][76]

In modern politics[edit]

Ko xing a has received renewed attention since rumors began circulating that thePeople’s Liberation Army Navywere planning to name their newly acquiredaircraft carrier,the ex-SovietVaryag,the "Shi Lang". AdmiralShi Langfamously defeated Ko xing a’s descendants in the 1683Battle of Penghu,thus bringingTaiwan under Qing rule.However, theChinese governmentdenied all allegations that the vessel would be dedicated to the decoratedQing dynastyadmiral.

Ko xing a is regarded as a hero in thePeople's Republic of China,Taiwan, andJapan,but historical narratives regarding Ko xing a frequently differ in explaining his motives and affiliation. Japan treats him as a native son and emphasized his maternal link to Japan in propaganda during theJapanese occupation of Taiwan.[77][78]The People's Republic of China considers Ko xing a a national hero for driving the imperialist Dutch away from Taiwan and establishing ethnic Chinese rule over the island.[77][78]Onmainland China,Ko xing a is honoured as the "Conqueror of Taiwan, Great Rebel-Quelling General"[79]a military hero who brought Taiwan back within theHan Chinesesphere of influence through expanded economic, trade and cultural exchanges. In China, Ko xing a is honoured without the religious overtones found in Taiwan.[80][clarification needed]

TheRepublic of China,which withdrew to Taiwan after losing theChinese Civil War,regards Ko xing a as a patriot who also retreated to Taiwan and used it as a base to launch counterattacks against theQing dynastyof mainland China (drawing parallels to the Republic of China'shypothetical reclamationof the mainland, comparing the ROC to the Ming dynasty and the PRC to the Qing dynasty). In Taiwan, Ko xing a is honored as the island’s most respected saint for expelling the Dutch and seen as the original ancestor of a free Taiwan, and is known as Kaishan Shengwang, or "the Sage King who Opened up Taiwan"[80]and as "TheYanpingPrince ",[81]referring to theKingdom of Tungning,which he established in modern-dayTainan.

In Taiwan, Ko xing a is remembered and revered as a divine national hero with hundreds of temples, schools, tertiary educations, and other public centers named in his honor. Ko xing a is accredited with replacing Dutch colonial rule with a more modern political system. Furthermore, Ko xing a transformed Taiwan into an agrarian society through the introduction of new agricultural methods such as the proliferation of iron farming tools and new farming methods with cattle. For these reasons, Ko xing a is often associated with "hints of [a] consciousness ofTaiwanese independence,"[79]although Ko xing a himself wanted Taiwan unified with the rest of China. Great care was taken to symbolize support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the termguaninstead ofbuto name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule ofChina.[82]

In art[edit]

The playThe Battles of Co xing awas written byChikamatsu Monzaemonin Japan in the 18th century, first performed inKyoto.[83][71]A 2001 film titledThe Sino-Dutch War 1661starredVincent Zhaoas Ko xing a.[84]The film was renamedKokusenya Kassenafter the aforementioned play and released in Japan in 2002.

The historical novelLord of Formosaby Dutch author Joyce Bergvelt uses Ko xing a as the main character.[85]

In video games[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^Wills (1974),p. 28 andKeene (1950),p. 46 both agree that Zheng's wife's surname was "Dong" (Đổng).Clements (2004),p. 92 however, claims her name was "Deng Cuiying".Chang (1995),p. 740 introduces her as "Tung Ts'ui-ying", which would be "Dong Cuiying" in Hanyu Pinyin.
  2. ^the London Times (26 November 1858)."The Pirates of the Chinese Seas".The New York Times.
  3. ^Andrade (2008).
  4. ^The China Review, Or, Notes and Queries on the Far East."China Mail" Office. 1884. pp. 346–.
  5. ^THe Orient.Orient Publishing Company. 1950. p. 20.
  6. ^Marius B. Jansen (1992).China in the Tokugawa World.Harvard University Press. p. 26.ISBN978-0-674-11753-2.
  7. ^Croizier (1977),p. 11;Keene (1950),p. 45.
  8. ^Andrade (2005),§ 7.
  9. ^"1. Trịnh thành công の dấu chân と Trịnh thành công が kết ぶ hữu hảo quốc"(in Japanese). Tei-Sei-Kou Memorial Museum.Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2015.Retrieved24 October2015.
  10. ^Ryōtarō Shiba (2007).The Tatar Whirlwind: A Novel of Seventeenth-century East Asia.Floating World Editions. p. 426.ISBN978-1-891640-46-9.
  11. ^Andrade 2005.
  12. ^abCroizier (1977),p. 12.
  13. ^Carioti, "The Zhengs' Maritime Power in the International Context of the 17th Century Far East Seas: The Rise of a 'Centralised Piratical Organisation' and Its Gradual Development into an Informal 'State'", p. 41, n. 29.
  14. ^Mote & Twitchett (1988),p. 658–660.
  15. ^abStruve (1984),pp. 87–88.
  16. ^Gần tùng môn tả vệ môn; Mark Van Doren (1951).The battles of Co xing a: Chikamatsu's puppet play, its background and importance.Taylor's Foreign Press. p. 45.
  17. ^Mote & Twitchett (1988),p. 675-676.
  18. ^Struve (1984),p. 98.
  19. ^Andrade (2005),§ 12.
  20. ^Keene (1950),p. 46.
  21. ^abcStruve (1984),p. 116.
  22. ^"Ko xing a Statue at Gulangyu receives Sculpture Achievement Award".Archivedfrom the original on 25 September 2018.Retrieved24 September2018.
  23. ^Yan Xing.Đài nam cùng Trịnh thành công[Tainan and Zheng Chenggong (Ko xing a)].Tainan Literature and History Research Database.National Museum of Taiwan History.Retrieved12 February2021.Lúc này thành công ý chí kiên quyết, liền đơn độc khởi xướng cự mãn hồi phục thị lực vận động, lấy kim, hạ hai đảo vi căn cứ địa mà, không ngừng mà hướng mân, chiết Đông Nam tiến công, phụng vĩnh minh vương vĩnh lịch chính sóc[Then Chenggong (Ko xing a) resolutely and independently advocated for the movement to resist the Manchus and restore Ming, with bases in Kinmen and Xiamen, continuously attacked southeastern Min (Fu gian ) and Zhe gian g, pledged to serve the Youngli emperor of Ming].
  24. ^Struve (1984),p. 159.
  25. ^Struve (1984),p. 160–166.
  26. ^Struve (1984),p. 181.
  27. ^Struve (1984),p. 182.
  28. ^Ho, Dahpon David (2011).Sealords live in vain: Fu gian and the making of a maritime frontier in seventeenth-century China(PhD dissertation). UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO. pp. 149–150.Archivedfrom the original on 4 April 2019.
  29. ^Yim, Lawrence C.H (2009).The Poet-historian Qian Qianyi.Routledge.p. 109.ISBN978-1134006069.
  30. ^Frederic E. Wakeman Jr. (1985).The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China.University of California Press. pp. 1047–1048.ISBN978-0-520-04804-1.Retrieved2 May2016.
  31. ^"The gate to Taiwan".18 April 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 7 February 2020.Retrieved7 February2020.
  32. ^Frank N. Magill (13 September 2013).The 17th and 18th Centuries: Dictionary of World Biography.Routledge. pp. 298–.ISBN978-1-135-92414-0.
  33. ^The Manchester Guardian Weekly.John Russell Scott for the Manchester Guardian. July 1950. p. 149.
  34. ^Campbell (1903),p.423.
  35. ^Covell, Ralph R. (1998).Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants(illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. pp. 96–97.ISBN978-0-932727-90-9.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2016.Retrieved10 December2014.
  36. ^Chiu, Hsin-Hui (2008).The Colonial 'civilizing Process' in Dutch Formosa: 1624–1662.Volume 10 of TANAP monographs on the history of the Asian-European interaction (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 222.ISBN978-9004165076.Archivedfrom the original on 10 April 2016.Retrieved10 December2014.
  37. ^Campbell (1903),p. 452.
  38. ^"Appendix 1 — Ko xing a-Dutch Treaty (1662)".1 February 1662. Archived fromthe originalon 14 July 2007.Retrieved5 April2018.
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  40. ^Davidson (1903),p.51.
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  45. ^Wills (1994),p.225.
  46. ^Croizier (1977),p. 20.
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  50. ^Croizier (1977),p. 47.
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  52. ^Posonby Fane, R A B (1937). "Ko xing a: Chronicles of the Tei Family, Loyal Servants of the Ming".Transactions of the Japan Society of London.34:79.
  53. ^Croizier (1977),p. 13.
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  58. ^Chung-To Au (2008).Modernist Aesthetics in Taiwanese Poetry Since The 1950s.BRILL. pp. 154–.ISBN978-90-04-16707-0.
  59. ^"Tám tuần thi nhân Trịnh Sầu Dư cổ lãng đảo liêu thơ ca".Bắc Kinh báo chiều.25 October 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2018.
  60. ^Young-tsu Wong (5 August 2017).China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon.Springer Singapore. pp. 222–.ISBN978-981-10-2248-7.
  61. ^Samuel H. Moffett (1998).A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume II.Volume 36 of American Society of Missiology series (2nd, illustrated ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222.ISBN978-1-57075-450-0.Retrieved20 December2011.
  62. ^Free China review, Volume 11.W.Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54.Retrieved20 December2011.
  63. ^Jonathan Manthorpe (2008).Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan(illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77.ISBN978-0-230-61424-6.Retrieved20 December2011.
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  84. ^Mark Pollard (2001)."Sino-Dutch War 1661 (2001)".HK Flix.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2002.
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Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

Zheng Sen
Born:27 August 1624Died:23 June 1662
Regnal titles
New title Prince of Yanping
May or June 1655 – 23 June 1662 		Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Ruler of theKingdom of Tungning
14 June 1661 – 23 June 1662 		Succeeded by
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ko xing a&oldid=1233888056"