Later Roman Empire

Inhistoriography,theLateorLater Roman Empiretraditionally spans the period from 284 (Diocletian's proclamation as emperor) to 641 (death ofHeraclius) in the history of theRoman Empire.

Evidence

Histories

Syriac manuscript of Eusebius'Church History(National Library of Russia, Codex Syriac 1)

In comparison with previous periods, studies on Later Roman history are based on diverse but mainly biased written sources. Completed around 314,Lactantius's work about theDiocletianic Persecution,titledOn the Death of the Persecutors,is an early example of prejudiced narrative.Hagiographies—Christian martyrs' and ascetics' biographies—form the period's most distinctive literary genre. TheMartyrs of PalestinebyEusebius,Bishop of Caesarea,introduced it in the early 4th century, but a later work, theLife of Anthonyabout the Egyptianhermit,Anthony the Greatset a template for further works. Eusebius'Life of Constantineabout the first Christian emperor is a useful collection of letters and official documents.In contrast with classical literature, Hagiographic works regularly presented women as leading characters. Examples include theLife of Macrinaabout a wealthy and pious aristocratMacrina the Younger.

With hisChurch History,Eusebius originated another new literary genre with the focus on Christian missionaries, church leaders, martyrs andheretics.This first church history was revised and resumed byRufinusin 402. Books written bySocrates of Constantinople,SozomenandTheodoretare the principal sources of ecclesiastic life until the mid-5th century.Orosiuswas the first scholar to integrate elements of classical and church history in the 420s. With hisHistory against the Pagans,he wanted to demonstrate that recent calamities cannot be regarded as a punishment for the suppression oftraditional Roman religion.Only three church historians' works survived from the 6th century:Zacharias Rhetor,John of EphesusandEvagrius Scholasticusfocus ontheologicaldebates. Later church histories, primarily destined to demonstrate the effects of divine providence on human life, seldom provide sufficient information for a deeper analysis of secular history. TheChronicon Paschaleis of the utmost importance for the study of the otherwise poorly documented early 7th century. A late source,Theophanes the Confessor's 9th-centuryChronographia,is invaluable for the military history of the 620s.

Most information about military and political history has been preserved in secular historians' works. When writing of events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable.Aurelius Victorand anunknown authorcompleted short imperial biographies in the second half of the 4th century, allegedly using acommon source.Around 370 two imperial secretaries,EutropiusandFestus,completed concise accounts of Roman history.Pagan Greek officerAmmianus Marcellinus"has a claim to be the finest Latin historian of any period", according to historian Stephen Mitchell, although only fragments of hisHistoriessurvived. Likewise only fragments are known from the works of Ammianus' continuator,Sulpicius Alexander.Scholars studying 5th-century Roman history can primarily rely on a10th-century collectionof fragments from earlier Greek authors' works. One of them,Priscus,wrote a detailed report of his visit atAttila the Hun's court in 449.The paganZosimus,the sole prominent Later Roman historian whose full work survived, blames Christianity for the quick decline of the Roman Empire.The last outstanding Roman historian,Procopiuscompleted detailed accounts of EmperorJustinian I's rule. HisWarscovers military actions. HisBuildingsprovides a list of the achievements of Justinian's building program, but archaeological evidence sometimes contradicts it. He summarizes his true views of Justinian and Justinian's inner circle in theSecret History,describing him as a wicked and unscrupulous figure surrounded by intrigues and scandals.The events of the second half of the 6th century are best known from the fragmentary works ofAgathiasandMenander the Guardsman.Agathias emphasizes the effect of unexpected events on history, Menander mainly cover diplomacy. The early-7th-centuryTheophylact Simocattais the least reliable Later Roman historian: both his chronology and topography are chaotic.

Legal texts and inscriptions

The systematic collection of legal texts commenced in the Late Roman period. TheCode of Theodosiuscontains about 2,500 entries and covers the period between 335 and 437. TheCode of Justinianexpands the Code of Theodosius with rulings issued by emperors between 437 and 529. Both legal compilations are important sources of state administration, although their actual application is unproven.The early 5th-centuryNotitia Dignitatumis a useful source of the empire's civil and military administration even if it likely contains exaggerated data: both military commanders and high-ranking civil servants tended to emphasize the importance of their office by giving overestimated numbers to official data collectors.In comparison with the classical age, Late Roman inscriptions are available in lesser quantity. Although collectiveovationsfor dignitaries were still regularly commemorated in public places, in this period they were made mainly in honor of imperial officials instead of local leaders as it had been common in the previous centuries.

Archaeology

Archaeological finds also abound, although "they remain understudied" (as Mitchell emphasizes it in 2015). The systematic study of archaeological evidence intensified after thedating systemof Late Roman pottery stabilized.

Background

Main article:Crisis of the Third Century

See also:Constitutio AntoninianaandRoman Warm Period

Bustof EmperorDecius(r. 249–251), a staunchpersecutor of Christians(Palazzo Nuovo,Capitoline Museums,Rome)

Looking back from the early 3rd century, the Roman historianCassius Dioconcluded that the Roman Empire had descended "from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust" after EmperorMarcus Aurelius' death in 180 AD. Cassius' words obviously reflect theRoman senators'aversion to theSeveran emperors,because other written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the empire recovered during their reign between 193 and 235.As a surviving element of Roman republican traditions, Roman emperors had been in theory no more thanprincipes senatus,or first among the senators during the first centuries of the monarchy. This notion of equality was manifest at the relatively high level of informality in the imperial court.Distance between emperors and Roman citizens increased and the ceremony ofprostrationwas first documented during the Severans' reign.In 212, EmperorCaracallagrantedfull Roman citizenshipto his all free subjects except for thedediticii,that is aliens who had been forced into submission or admitted to the empire.

The last Severan emperor,Severus Alexander,was assassinated by his own troops in 235.During the following fifty years, twenty emperors ruled the empire in quick succession, and most of them were killed by mutinous soldiers.With the emergence of the militantSasanian Empire,Rome ceased to be the sole great power in the Near East. In the west, the new tribal confederations of theFranks,Alemanni,SarmatiansandGothsmade regular incursions deep into Roman territory.The central government's instability reaffirmed secessionist movements in the periphery.In the west, a rebel provincial governor,Postumusruled a "Gallic Empire"from 259; in the east, QueenZenobiaestablished an independentPalmyrene Empirein 267. Both breakaway states were destroyed by EmperorAurelianin the 270s.As the continuous payment of soldiery could be secured only by the regulardebasementof the Roman silver coins, thedenarii,inflation became uncontrollable. Inflation increased the significance of taxes in kind, particularly theannona militaris—the compulsory grain supply to the army—and theangareia—the mandatory military transport.

The mid-3rd century saw a period of cooling and drought, well documented in many regions. During previous years of drought, the exceptional ecological conditions of the fertile Nile valley had helped the Roman authorities to overcome famine in other regions, but thefloods of the Nilewere abnormally weak from 244 to 248.Furthermore, the deadlypandemicnow known as thePlague of Cyprianfirst hit the Mediterranean in 249.Cyprian,Bishop of Carthage,after whom the plague is named, attributed the calamities to the "old age of the world", but the pagans blamed the Christians' reluctance to worship theancient gods.The size of the Christian communities had significantly grown in large urban centers like Rome, Antioch,AlexandriaandCarthagein the early 3rd century. The Christians were outlawed for their alleged opposition to traditional Roman values, but they were only sporadically persecuted. A drastic change came with EmperorDecius' edict compelling all Romans to make sacrifices to the gods in 249. Non-compliant Christians wereexecuted or forced into exileand the purge continued until EmperorGallienusput an end to it in 260.

With Gallienus' successor,Claudius Gothicusthe military aristocracy of theRoman provinceson the Middle Danube took control of the Roman state. Located at the intersection of overland routes connecting the empire's eastern and western part, these provinces were a principal venue of military operations and recruitment. Typically born into families of long military tradition, the "barracks emperors"were mainly extremely conservatives, but they did not hesitate to overturn traditional principles of state administration for practical considerations.

History

Main article:History of the Later Roman Empire

Tetrarchy

Main article:Tetrarchy

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs(St Mark's Basilica,Venice)

TheIllyrianDiocletianwas a genuine representative of the soldier emperor's reformist zeal.He was proclaimed emperor at a meeting of senior officers atNicomediain November 284.He recognized that he could not rule the vast empire alone and made his former comrade-in-arms the PannonianMaximianhis co-ruler, first, in 285, asCaesar(or junior emperor), a year later, asAugustus.Thediarchy—the rule of two co-emperors—resulted in the informal division of the empire: Diocletian mostly ruled in the east (including Illyricum and Egypt), and Maximian in the west. In 293, Diocletian instituted atetrarchy—four co-emperors' joint rule—by appointing two Illyrian officersConstantius ChlorusandGaleriusas Caesars.The tetrarchs repelled pillaging raids by the neighboring tribes and launched offensive campaigns against them. New border fortresses were built along the Danube and a selective settlement program was introduced, allowing someCarpiansto move from their north-Danubian homeland toPannoniaandMoesia.The Sassanian rulerNarsehinvadedArmenia,a buffer state under Roman suzerainty, androuted Galeriusin 296. Reinforced by fresh troops from the Danubian provinces, Galerius defeated Narsehin Armeniaand sacked the Persian capitalCtesiphon.Peacewas restoredwhen Narseh acknowledged the Romans' suzerainty over Armenia and the neighboringCaucasian Iberia,and surrendered some border provinces in 299.

The systematic codification ofRoman lawbegan with theGregorian Code—a collection of imperial rulings—in 292. The tetrarchs' involvement in the process is not documented, but it was consistent with their attempt to stabilize the empire.The spread of Christianity and the Christians' rejection of traditional cults troubled the elderly Diocletian. In concern with Galerius, he outlawed Christianity in 303, initiating the Christians' last systematic persecution in the empire.

After recovering from a serious illness Diocletian concluded that he and Maximian had ruled long enough. They jointly announced their retirement in May 305. A new tetrarchy was established with Constantius and Galerius as the newAugusti,and two Illyrian officersValerius SeverusandMaximinus Daiaas the newCaesares.The new arrangement ignored the ambitions of Constantius' sonConstantineand Maximian's sonMaxentius.When Constantius died in Britain in 306, his troops proclaimed Constantine his successor. Galerius recognized Constantine as the new Caesar in return for Constantine's consent to the appointment of Valerius as Augustus in the west. Maxentius rejected their agreement. He persuaded his retired father to again assume the title of Augustus and attacked Valerius in Italy, forcing him to commit suicide in 307.To restore internal peace, Diocletian, Galerius and Maximian held a conference atCarnuntumin 308. Diocletian and Galerius established a new tetrarchy recognizing Galerius and his protégéLiciniusasAugusti,and Maximinus and Constantine asCaesares,but Maximian, Constantine and Maxentius did not accept their decision.

Maximian staged a failed coup against Constantine and committed suicide in 310. A year later, Galerius and the retired Diocletian died, leaving Constantine, Licinius, Maxentius and Maximinus on the scene.Constantine and Licinius quickly concluded an alliance against Maxentius whose realm separated their territories. Constantine invaded Italy and defeated Maxentiusat the Milvian Bridgenear the city of Rome in 312. Maxentius drowned in theTiberand Constantine seized Italy and Africa.He reinforced his alliance with Licinius at a meeting in Milan in February 313. They restored religious freedom, abolishing all laws limiting the Christians' civil rights. Although their agreement was not formally enacted, it is now known inaccurately as theEdict of Milan.After returning to the east, Licinius inflicted adecisive defeaton Maximinus in Thrace in April 313. After their triumph, relationship between Constantine and Licinius became strained. In 317, Licinius had to surrender Illyricum to Constantine. Seven years later, Constantine routed Liciniusat Chrysopolisand enforced his abdication.

Christianization

Further information:German and Sarmatian campaigns of ConstantineandByzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties

Head of abronze colossus of Constantine(Capitoline Museums,Rome)

Constantine was not baptised until his last illness butChristian ethicsinfluenced his legislation especially in cases when Christian values corroborated tendencies that had already existed in Roman law. He forbade thebrandingof slaves on the forehead, abolishedpenalties forcelibacy,and offered financial support to poor parents to discourage infanticide. He banned gladiator games and promoted the less violentchariot racing.Unilateral divorce was limited to cases of serious crimes, like poisoning, committed by husband or wife.Constantine developed a system of client states along the Danube and Rhine taking advantage of the neighboring tribes' dependence on commerce with the empire.He established a new city on the site of the ancient GreekpolisofByzantiumon theBosporus.His "New Rome" was consecrated asConstantinopleon 11 May 330.He appointed his three sons,Constantine II,Constantius II,andConstansCaesars between 328 and 333, but none of them was promoted to Augustus during his lifetime. In 335, he made his nephewDalmatiusthe fourth Caesar and awarded Dalmatius' half-brotherHannibalianuswith the traditional Persian royal title "King of Kings".After the Sassanian kingShapur IIexpelled the Roman client kingTigran VIIfrom Armenia, Constantine decided to launch a counter-attack, but he died on 22 May 337.For Constantius believed that Dalmatius and Hannibalianus wanted to get rid of him and his brothers, he had them and their suspected supporters executed. In September 337, the three brothers assumed the title of Augustus and divided the empire at a meeting in Pannonia: Constantine received the western, Constans the central and Constantius the eastern regions.

Constantius persuaded the Armenian kingArshak IIto accept Roman protection, but he mainly refrained from offensive actions against Persia.Constantine, the eldest of the three brothers, was dissatisfied with the division of the empire. In early 340, he attacked Constans to seize Italy, but died in an encounter and Constans took control of his territory. Constans fell victim to a conspiracy by a military commanderMagnentiuswho was proclaimed emperor early in 350.A period of anarchy followed the coup in the west, lasting until Constantius overcame Magnentius and reunited the empire in 353.He appointed his cousinGallusto rule the eastern provinces as Caesar, but Gallus' despotic measures caused massive discontent. In 354, Constantius had him arrested and executed, and made Gallus' half-brotherJulianCaesar with responsibility for Gaul. After a Persian invasion of Mesopotamia, Constantius hurried to the east. He ordered Julian to send reinforcements but the Gallic troops revolted and proclaimed Julian Augustus. Constantius died of a mortal illness inCiliciain November 361.On his deathbed, he had allegedly named Julian as his sole heir. Julian had concealed his paganNeoplatonicsympathies, but after his ascension he openly renounced Christianity. He died fighting the Persians on 26 June 363.

Julian's successor, a Christian military commanderJovianabandonedRoman territories in Mesopotamiaand acknowledged Persian protectorate over Armenia in return for a thirty-year peace. While marching towards Constantinople, he died of accidentalcarbon monoxide poisoningin February 364.The army leaders proclaimed another Christian officerValentinian Iemperor after they reachedNicaea.Fearing of a new succession crisis, the soldiers persuaded Valentinian to appoint a co-emperor. He choose his younger brotherValens,entrusting him with the administration of the eastern half of the empire. Julian's relativeProcopiuschallenged Valens' claim to rule, but Valens routed himin Lydiain 366. Next year Valentinian fell seriously ill and made his eight-year-old elder sonGratianhis co-ruler in the west. Valentinian survived, only to die of stroke after a heated encounter withQuadianenvoys in the PannonianBrigetioin 376. His generals proclaimed his younger sonValentinian IIGratian's co-emperor, likely to prevent each other from claiming the throne. As Valentinian was only four, Gratian became the sole ruler of their father's part of the empire.

Unable to resist attacks by the nomadicHunsfrom the east, masses of Goths—reportedly 100,000 men, women and children—gathered at the Lower Danube and sought asylum from Valens in the summer of 376. Valens granted their request because he wanted to muster fresh troops from among the Goths for a new war against Persia. The asylum seekers were settled inThrace,but avaricious provincial officials enslaved many of them in return for low quality food staff. The local Roman army could not stop the influx of further refugees across the Danube. The despaired Goths revolted and they were joined by Hunnic raiders. Valens sought military assistance from Gratian but engaged the Goths and their alliesat Adrianoplewithout waiting for the arrival of western reinforcements. The Goths nearly annihilated theEast Roman armyand Valens died in the battlefield on 9 August 378.Facing the new military crisis, Gratian reactivated a previously dismissedHispaniangeneralTheodosius,and appointed him as his co-emperor in January 379. Theodosius could pacify the Goths only through an unprecedented compromise in 382. He not only allowed them to settle in groups in Thrace andDacia Ripensisasfoederati,or allies, but also recognized their right to live under their own chieftains' rule.

Theodosius was the first emperor to rule primarily from Constantinople. Early in 383 he proclaimed his six-year-old elder sonArcadiushis co-emperor. Gratian refused to confirm the child's promotion, but he soon faced insurrections in the west. In June the commander of the Roman troops in BritainMagnus Maximusassumed the title of Augustus and seized Gaul. Two months later Gratian was murdered by his own guards. As Maximus quickly took control of Hispania and Africa, Valentinian could only keep Italy.In 387 Theodosius concluded apeace treatywith the new Sassanian kingShapur III.They divided Armenia. Two years later Western Armenia was incorporated into the Roman Empire, but Theodosius appointed localArmenianaristocrats to rule the new provinces as hereditary governors.Maximus forced Valentinian to flee from Italy to Thessaloniki in summer 387. After Theodosius married Valentinian's sisterGalla,Maximus invaded Pannonia, but Theodosius defeated and captured him at Aquileia.Theodosius restored Valentinian as emperor in the west, but put him under the guardianship of a Frankish military commanderArbogast.Arbogast openly disobeyed Valentinian's orders and the young emperor committed suicide in 392. With Arbogast's support, a Roman pagan aristocrat,Eugeniuswas proclaimed emperor, but Theodosius defeated him in theBattle of the Frigiduson 6 September 394. He re-unified the Roman Empire, but he died on 17 January 395.

Divided empire

The Roman Empire after its division in 395

Further information:Fall of the Western Roman EmpireandByzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty

On Theodosius I's death the Roman Empire was divided between his two sons: the eighteen-year-old Arcadius succeeded him in the east and the ten-year-oldHonoriusin the west.Theodosius' death is traditionally regarded as a decisive moment in the separation of the empire's eastern and western halves. Contemporaneous observers did not consider it more than a new division of responsibilities—on this occasion between two leading figures of the two emperors' courts, theWestern RomangeneralStilichoand theEastern Romanpraetorian prefectRufinus.Their conflict enabled an ambitious Gothic leaderAlaric Ito take control of the western Balkans.Before the end of 395, the Huns launched a plundering raid against the Eastern Roman Empire from the east, and a Gothic commander in Roman service,Gainasmurdered Rufinus. Arcadius' confidant, theeunuchEutropiusassumed power in Constantinople, but Gainas achieved his deposition after a rebellion of thePhrygianGothic troops in 399. In a year, an anti-Gothic popular riot broke out in Constantinople and Arcadius dismissed Gainas with the support of an other Gothic generalFravitta.Anti-Gothic sentiments endured in Constantinople: Fravitta was executed and the Gothic military commanders were replaced by Armenians, Persians andIsaurians.

Likely the Eastern Romans' hostility to the Goths persuaded Alaric to search a new homeland in northern Italy, but Stilicho routed himat Pollentiaon Easter Day 402. In 405, a Gothic chieftainRadagaisusled a mixed group of people into Italy. Stilicho enclosed and captured them with the support ofAlans,Goths and Hunsat Florence.In late 406, masses ofVandals,Alans,Suebiand other peoples stormed into Western Roman territoryacross the Rhine.Both migrations were probably triggered by the Huns' westward expansion.The Roman troops in Britain mutinied. One of their candidates to emperorshipConstantine IIIconsolidated his position and crossed the Channel into Gaul where he recruited new troops from among the invaders.As the bulk of the Roman garrisons accompanied Constantine to Gaul, raiders from Ireland launched regular attacks against Britain.Alaric resumed the attacks against northern Italy andNoricumand demanded 4,000 pounds of gold for a peace treaty. The senators preferred to resist, but Stilicho paid the tribute because he wanted to seize Illyricum from the Eastern Romans with Alaric's support.

Arcadius died in Constantinople on 1 May 408 leaving his successor, the six-year-oldTheodosius IIunder the guardianship of the praetorian prefectAnthemius.Honorius was planning to assume authority in Constantinople, but Stilicho prevented his travel. By hiring foreign troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers' confidence and he was murdered by plotters inRavennain August. Stilicho's foreign troops and their families were massacred and those who escaped sought Alaric's protection.A Hunnic leaderUldinraided Thrace and capturedCastra Martis,but Anthemius forced him to abandon the campaign by paying off his deputies.Alaric invaded Italy and persuaded the Senatus to proclaim a pagan Roman aristocratPriscus Attalusemperor in November 409.The usurper Constantine III could not prevent the Vandals, Alans and Suebi from crossing thePyreneesinto Hispania. His generalGerontiusmutinied and acclaimed a certainMaximusemperor.After realizing that the central government couldno more control Britain,Honorius "sent letters to thecitiesof Britain, urging them to fend for themselves ".

Attalus could not provide the Goths with sufficient food and Alaric deserted him. After Alaric's negotiations with Honorius failed, the Gothssacked Romeon 24 August 410. The plundering of the Eternal City shocked the Romans although the Goths quickly abandoned it. Alaric decided to conquer Roman Africa, but he died before the end of the year. The Goths under his rule, now known asVisigoths,elected his brother-in-lawAthaulfhis successor.Maximus attacked Constantine in Gaul and the two usurpers' conflict gave Honorius' generalConstantiusthe opportunity to intervene. Maximus withdrew to Hispania and Constantius captured Constantine atArles.A Gallic aristocratJovinussecured the support of a coalition ofBurgundians,Alans and other peoples and had himself proclaimed Augustus inMainz.He allowed the Burgundians to establishtheir kingdomin Roman territory on the Middle Rhine. The Visigoths left Italy and joined the coalition supporting Jovinus in Gaul, but after Honorius promised grain supplies to them, Athaulf captured and beheaded Jovinus. He married Honorius' half-sister,Galla Placidiawho had been captured during the sack of Rome. At the wedding, he reportedly declared the renewal of the Roman Empire "by the might of the Goths" as his main purpose, but a year later, in 415, he was murdered by a retainer. His successorWalliaagreed to fight against the Vandals and Alans in Hispania in return for food supply from the Romans.

The general Constantius who had a pivotal role in the negotiations with the Visigoths married Galla Placidia in January 417. The Visigoths inflicted humiliating defeats on the Vandals and Alans, and Constantius allowed them to settle inGallia Aquitania.Honorius made Constantius his co-emperor as Augustus in 421, but Constantius soon died of an illness. After a fierce conflict with her half-brother the widowed Galla Placidia fled to Constantinople.In response to a persecution of Persian Christians, Theodosius declared war on Persia, but a Hunnic invasion of the Balkans forced him to renew the peace with the Sassanian Empire. To prevent further plundering raids, he agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 25,200nomismatato the Huns.When Honorius died in August 423, his courtiers proclaimed one of their numberJohnemperor, but Theodosius acknowledged Galla Placidia's six-year-old son by Constantius,Valentinian IIIas Honorius' lawful successor. Theodosius appointed the Alan generalArdaburand Ardabur's sonAsparto lead troops against John, while John sent a junior court officerFlavius Aetiusto the Huns to recruit mercenaries. Aetius who had spent years among the Huns as a hostage returned to Italy accompanied by Hunnic troops but by that time Ardabur had captured John. Aetius and Ardabur reached a compromise whereby Aetius acknowledged the child Valentinian III as emperor in return for his appointment as the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. Galla Placidia distrusted Aetius. She appointed a senior officerFelixto the supreme commandership and sent Aetius to Gaul. Taking advantage of a conflict between Felix and the military commander of Roman AfricaBonifatius,Aetius staged a coup and had Felix murdered.Bonifatius and Aetius would be mentioned as "the last of the Romans" by Procopius, but their rivalry was a principal characteristic of their age.

Although the Vandals and Alans conquered southern Hispania, their kingGaisericrealized that they could hardly resist attacks by the Visigoths and Romans for long. He led the Vandals and Alans across theStrait of Gibraltarinto northern Africa. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and capturedHippo RegiusinNumidia.Aspar led Eastern Roman and Italian refinforcements to Carthage, but they could not defeat the invaders.To counterbalance Aetius' power, Galla Placidia recalled Bonifatius from Africa and made him the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. Bonifatius defeated Aetiusat Riminiin 432, but was mortally wounded during the battle. His son-in-lawSebastianussucceeded him as supreme commander. Aetius fled to the Huns and hired Hunnic mercenaries. On his return to Italy, Sebastianus was deposed and Aetius was appointed as his successor. He concluded a peace treaty with the Vandals, acknowledging their hold of the western regions of Roman Africa in 435.The Huns had established their new center of power in theplains alongthe riverTiszain Central Europe. Aetius regularly hired them to fight against the Burgundians, Visigoths and the rebelliousBagaudaeof Gaul.

Government

Monarchy

Main article:Dominate

See also:Principate

Diocletian introduced the official ritual ofadoratio,ordering that his subjects were to kneel before him and kiss the corner of his robe. Traditional imperial titulature was expanded with titles likedominus( "lord" ), and Jovius or Herculius (in reference to the gods Jupiter and Hercules, respectively). The use of the adjectives "sacred" and "divine" became common when referring anything with direct contact with the emperor, including his bedchamber and treasury.Access to the emperors was increasingly controlled by new court officials. They were often chosen from among the eunuchs who were always at the emperor's mercy, and were often unpopular. Among the new dignitaries, theprimiceriuswas first attested in 312, thepraepositusin 326.As only top bureaucrats could afford time-consuming and costly travels, low-level provincial officials rarely made contacts with their peers in other provinces.

The tetrarchs ruled the empire as members of an undivided "imperial college", but they rarely met in person. They were mainly staying along the borders and their absence from Rome gave rise to the development of new imperial centers, including Nicomedia,Serdica,ThessalonicaandTrier,each provided with a palace, ahippodromeand warehouses.Constantinople developed into the empire's unrivalled second capital only during the reign of Theodosius I.From the 380s, the emperors rarely held their court along the frontiers, and the eastern emperors mainly stayed in Constantinople, and their western co-rulers in Milan, Aquileia orRavenna.

In theory, Roman emperors wereautocratswhose authority to make, modify or even break laws was absolute. In practice, they made decisions based on information received from faraway officials and official reports often gave a distorted view of individual cases.Emperors typically intervened in local affairs on the initiative of individuals or municipalities who wanted of take advantage of their intercession. Roman citizens could approach the emperor directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law. Under therescriptsystem, the legal question was raised on the top of a piece of papyrus, and it was answered by the emperor, or rather one of his legal advisors on the bottom half. The Code of Theodosius cites a number of cases when the system was misused through the falsification of imperial responses.

After the Christianization of the empire the Senatus no more rewarded deceased emperors with a divine status, but the emperors were regarded as God's representatives on Earth. Official meetings began with acclamations in their honor emphasizing the divinely sanctioned nature of their rule. Even imperial images sent to the cities at the beginning of an emperor's rule were received and greeted at formal assemblies. Most Christian intellectuals embraced a modified version of Rome's imperialist ideology, claiming that God destined the empire to facilitate the spread of Christianity for the salvation of all mankind.Paulinus of Nola,Melania the Elderand a few other thinkers were more critical and denied that Rome represented an ideal civilization under God's special protection.

State administration

See also:Cursus honorum

The Roman Empire under the first tetrarchy, showing thediocesesand the four tetrarchs' zones of influence post-299.

State administration underwent more structural changes during the period starting with Diocletian's ascension and ending with Theodosius' death than in the previous three centuries. By the end of the 4th century, a highly centralized bureaucratic system, employing about 35,000 officials, operated state affairs. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of thefirst emperors.

The Roman Empire was divided into about 50provincesin the 260s. As almost all provinces were split into two under Diocletian, the early-4th-centuryLaterculus Veronensisalready listed almost 100 provinces. Diocletian grouped the provinces into 12 new territorial units, known asdioceses.Each diocese was ruled by avicariuswho reported to one of the twopraetorian prefects.The head of the largeDiocese of the Eastbore the title ofComes Orientis,while the provincesAfricaandAsiaremained under the rule ofproconsulswho reported directly to the emperors. The praetorian prefects were the highest-ranking military, financial and judicial officials, and the appointment of thevicariieased their administrative burdens.The maintenance of two separate hierarchies ofequestrianand senatorial offices became obsolete by the end of the 3rd century. Diocletian replaced the old system with a new hierarchy of imperial officials and made the senatorial rank available to all who held high offices in imperial administration. Under the new system, civil and military hierarchies were separated. Theprovincial governorswere no more responsible for military affairs, although they were occasionally ordered to lead a military campaign or build a fort. The traditional senatorial aristocracy mainly held offices with limited military responsibility,while military career became open to non-Roman soldiery. The new imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections.

Constantine removed the praetorian prefects' most military functions, although they remained responsible for recruitment and supply of armies. With the regular appointment of five praetorian prefects, each ruling a well defined group of dioceses, new territorial administrative units, known aspraetorian prefectures,came into being during his reign. A new high-ranking official, themagister officiorum,was first mentioned in 320. By the end of Constantine's rule, he was the head of the court secretariats and thescholae palatinae,or imperial guard.After abolishing the senators' obligation to reside in Rome and attend the meetings of the Senate, Constantine could grant senatorial rank generously. The establishment of a new Senate at Constantinople further increased the number of senators.To promote the development of his new capital, he granted Anatolian estates to all senators who built a private house in Constantinople.The unofficial titlecomeshad been used in reference to the emperors' companions, but Constantine formalized it as a new rank and honor, bestowing it particularly on those in his immediate service.As a sign of the growing importance of Christianity, Constantine authorized the bishops to make judgement in civil cases between Christian litigants.

Military

Main article:Late Roman army

See also:East Roman army

Roman citizens regarded the defense of their homeland as the emperors' prime duty. They paid taxes and raised troops in return for protection against the "howling people" surrounding the Roman Empire, but the emperors were not always able to meet their expectations. Civil wars could ruin the defense system, talented barbarian chieftains could launch successful invasions deep into the empire, and catastrophic events could cause mass migrations towards the borderlands. Public opinion endorsed cruelty when dealing with the enemy and prisoners of war were customarily thrown to the beasts in gladiator shows.Emperors routinely commemorated their victories over the barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins. Quite paradoxically, even Honorius, characterized as the "most unwarlike emperor" by historianThomas S. Burns,was depicted as a conqueror of enemy forces on his coins.

The making of strategic decisions was the emperor's monopoly, but in many cases he was far away from military emergency. Theimperial posttransferred messages at a speed of about 80 kilometres (50 miles) per day, and news often reached the imperial court weeks after the events. The tetrarchy addressed this issue by allocating a separate field army to each emperor. Emperors Julian and Valens were killed in action, demonstrating that the personal command of the army could put the emperor's life at risk.

A late source with access to official records,John the Lydianasserts that during Diocletian's reign 389,704 troops served in the field army and 45,562 sailors in the navy. According to modern estimations, the Roman army was of 400,000–600,000 strong in the mid-4th century.For Roman soldiery served twenty-year terms, this army size could be maintained through the recruitment of at least 20,000 troops each year. Most soldiers were conscripts and sons of veterans were expected to serve in the army.Imperial laws against those who mutilated themselves reveal that a military career was not attractive to all citizens. Prisoners and defeated enemies were regularly recruited, and volunteers, both Romans and foreigners, also served in the army. Although the rules changed time to time, slaves, men less than 1.65 metres (5.4 feet), heretics and urban magistrates were excluded from military service.

Most Roman soldiers were stationed along the frontiers around 260. They were organized intolegionsandauxiliary forcesunder the command of the provincial governors. The emperors were accompanied by elite troops, including 10cohortsofpraetoriansand a cavalry unit known asequites singulares.Under Diocletian new cavalry units serving directly under the emperors were organized. They were calledscholae palatinae.Constantine I dissolved the praetorians and formalized the distinction between the border troops, orlimitanei,and the field army troops, orcomitatenses.Part of the field army was organized into regional units each under the command of amagister militum.The regional units usually wintered at Trier, Sirmium,Marcianopolisand Antioch. On occasions, expeditionary forces developed into permanent detachments, like those dispatched to Africa, Britain andIsauria.The rest of the field army remained under the emperor's direct command and the imperial field army was divided into two units on the division of the empire between Valentinian I and Valens in 364. The mainRoman fleetwas based at Ravenna in the west, and first at Nicomedia then at Constantinople in the east. The reorganization of the army established a more flexible command structure and diminished the dependence of the frontier troops on the imperial field army in case of emergency.

Society

Imperial Roman society was highly hierarchical. An individual's status depended on their wealth, occupation, family connections and career. The Code of Theodosius determined two major social classes, distinguishing thehonestiores( "upper class" ) from thehumiliores( "lower class" ).

Religion

Paganism

The cities were the centres of the pagan cults all over the Roman Empire. The local deities wereassociated withthegods of the Roman pantheon,but elements of the local cults survived. Pagan cults were mainly centered around major temples and public festivals were their important elements.When praying, a pagan often used formulas that had allegedly been disclosed to the leaders of their native town by anoracle.Associations of worshippers who showed specific reverence towards one of the gods mainly existed in urban environment. Their members often had the same ethnic or professional background. Soldiers primarily worshippedMithrasorJupiter Dolichenusand primarily eastern merchants frequented the temple ofSerapisatLeptis Magna.Emperor worshipwas an other essential component of Roman traditions. It was closely associated with gladiator shows. Ideas about a single supreme god who governs the universe were widespread. For instance, the oracle atClarosspoke about theHighest Godruling over other deities, including theTwelve Olympians,in the 3rd century. EmperorAurelianpresented the sun godSol Invictus( "Unconquered Sun" ) as the supreme deity. On the other hand, a persistent belief in the existence of myriads ofdemonsis well documented. Individuals regularly approached sorcerers or applied magical practices to secure the support of unearthly powers although magical practices were outlawed.The regulated way of life of Egyptian priestly communities and their enthusiasm for scientific studies arrested the attention of some pagan philosophers from the 3rd century.Porphyry of Tyrepraised their piety, an Egyptian group using the nameHermes Trismegistuspromoted the adoption of allegedly Egyptian priestly traditions, and Porphyry's pupilIamblichuscompleted a coherent polytheist theological system under the Egyptian pseudonym, Abammon.

Portrait ofJulian,the last pagan Roman emperor, on a bronze coin

A passionate convert to Christianity, Constantine I used harsh words when mentioning the pagans, but his legislation reflects a reconciliatory approach. In a letter to the eastern provincials, he stated that "It is one thing to take on willingly the contest for immortality, quite another to enforce it with sanctions". Only pagan practices that the Christians regarded especially immoral or offensive were banned under his rule. Examples include his ban onsacred prostitutionand the demolition of pagan altars and sculptures near theOak of Mamrewhere God had appeared to Abraham according to Biblical tradition. Late sources attribute the ban on sacrifices to him, but only sacrifices associated with magical practices were forbidden during his reign.Cases of religious syncretism are well documented. For instance, after the 348 earthquake in Beirut pagans started praying in the Christian church, but they did not abandon all their pagan customs.Pagan temples were first closed under Constantius II, but Julian re-opened them. Inscriptions hailed Julian as "restorer of liberty and the Roman religion".He revived the system of provincial high priests and appointed a chief priest for each city.His enthusiasm for sacrifices shocked Christians and pagan intellectuals alike. Reportedly, he sacrificed so many animals while making preparations for his Persian campaign that people worried about a shortage of cattle.His short reign could not stop the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Jovian adopted a moderate approach and only repeated bans on magical practices. The paganpanegyristThemistiuspraised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background.

The transformation of Roman religious life in Late Antiquity is poorly documented. Christian authors rarely recorded evidences of the survival of paganism. Pagan inscriptions were rare in the 4th century with the prominent exception of Rome, but it may have been the consequence of the transformation of practices of commemoration.In 382, Gratian abolished all state grants to pagan cults in the city of Rome, including the Vesta Virgins' salaries (. After his death, the city's pagan prefectQuintus Aurelius Symmachuscould not persuade Valentinian II to allow the restoration of theAltar of Victoryin theSenate House.Maternus Cynegius,the christian praetorian prefect of the East, was accused of allowing the destruction of pagan temples by fanatic mobs, but some recent authors, however, have questioned his role in events and his overall reputation as a christian fanatic and temple destroyer.

It is popularly believed theSerapeumwas destroyed byPatriarch Theophilusand his followers in 392, but Alexandria had suffer a long-term backdrop of frequent mob violence during four hundred years, since the 1st century BC, so is also possible that the Serapeum was a collateral destruction because that mob violence that has no religious background (gangs consisted of christians as well as jews and pagans, no matter the religion of the member).There is evidence that pagans had taken part in citywide struggles both for and againstAthanasius of Alexandriain 341 and 356.

Another widespread myth is that the successor of Theophilus,Cyril of Alexandria,ordered the murder ofHypatia,in reality Hypatia was assassinated not for religious reasons, but for political ones, as she belonged to one of the multi-confessional factions that disputed control of the city. Hypatia's death horrified Cyril, who, although he was her intellectual rival, held her in very high esteem, condemning the city for its violent nature.

When theflooding of the Niledelayed, the pagan Egyptians wanted to make sacrifices forSerapis,the deity responsible for the flooding, but the Christians destroyed Serapis' reliefs on their houses and painted crosses on their places.Theodosius I's opponentEugeniuspromised to restore sacrifices to secure the support of the remnants of pagan aristocracy. After Eugenius' fall, Theodosius introduced a general ban on pagan sacrifices in 391. Bans on pagan sacrifices were regularly repeated in the 5th century, indicating that they were ineffectual.

Festivities were the most lasting elements of pagan cults.Augustine of Hippowrites of pagan dancers marching by Christian churches and stoning them as a reprisal for the Christian clergy's attempt to hinder the pagan celebration.

The end of neoplatonism occurred during the reign of Justinian I. Around 531 he banned all who had not received the orthodox/nicean baptism from teaching and serving in state administration. Their children were to be educated in Christian environment and those who resisted were banished from the empire.

Still in 591Pope Gregory Iwrote of Sardinian pagans who had bribed the island's governor to tolerate their activities.

Christianity

Great Persecution

Christians lived inpeace for decadesfrom the 260s. Official tolerance contributed to the spread of their faith, and their communities can be detected in most cities by the end of the century. Relationship between the Roman state and Christians was cordial to the extent that an Antiochene Christian group sought Emperor Aurelian's intervention against their bishopPaul of Samosatawhom they hadexcommunicatedforheresy.The legend ofMaximilian of Tebessa,an earlyconscientious objectorindicates that the number of Christian troops was not insignificant around 295.By the end of the 3rd century, clerical hierarchy had stabilized and the bishops emerged as the paramount leaders of the local Christian communities. Regarding themselves as theapostles' successors,the bishops of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch claimed the right to guide all Christians.Exorcismwas an important component of Christianity in Late Antiquity.Christian exorcists were regularly approached by pagans as well, because their practices were regarded as a magical cure againstdemonic possession.

The peaceful period came to an abrupt end with the Great Persecution under Diocletian.Lactantius blames theharuspices—pagan priests practicingdivination—for arousing Diocletian's anger against the Christians, and Galerius and his fanatically pagan mother for convincing him to take drastic measures. Diocletian outlawed Christianity on 23 February 303. His edits ordered the destruction of Christian churches and literature and the confiscation of church property. Christians were dismissed from imperial service and they were ordered to make sacrifices to pagan gods. The anti-Christian edits were not carried out consistently: in the west, Maximian and Constantius were mainly reluctant to implement them, and Constantine put an end to the purge in 306; in the east, Christians were imprisoned, tortured or executed, and the persecution lasted until Maximinus' fall in 312.

Legalization and Romanization

Baptism of Constantine the Great (Basilica of Saint-Remi,Reims)

The details of the Edict of Milan are known from a letter that Licinius sent to the eastern provinces. He announced the restoration of the confiscated property to the Christians, but also promised a compensation for those who had seized confiscated goods during the persecution.Constantine made lavish donations to the Christian church, including 10.5 tons of silver, 2,335 pounds of gold and 34,255 goldsolidiaccording to a list preserved in theLiber Pontificalis.He sponsored the building of Christian churches in Rome, mainly in the suburbs, because he did not want to outrage the predominantly pagan Roman aristocracy. The construction of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchreand other pilgrim churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem started during his rule. He exempted the Christian clergy from all public duties and taxes and legitimized pious donations to the church.For clerical privileges increased other citizens' burdens, town magistrates tended to ignore them. Tax avoidance through receiving theholy orderswas common and Constantine had to limit the number of clergymen to curb it.

Christianity, as historianPeter Heatherunderlines, was "in some senses a democratizing and equalizing force". While classical culture claimed that only the wealthy could live a truly civilized life, hagiographies praised uneducated ascetics who abandoned civilisation for the desert.According to Emperor Julian, Christianity owed its success primarily to the Christians' generous acts of charity, their special care for the dead and their attempt to live a virtuous life, because all these features were of particular importance for the impoverished masses of Roman society.In practice, Christian influence on Roman society and state was limited, but Christianity was quickly Romanized. The Christian God replaced the pagan gods in official documents and ceremonies, but few rich Christians renounced their wealth as Biblical stories proposed it. Church hierarchy followed the patterns of state administration: the bishops of the provincial capitals, known asmetropolitan bishops,became the superior of other bishops in the province. Episcopal elections became controlled by the aristocracy and the local communities could no more freely elect their bishops.Constantine treated the bishops as imperial officials. His frequent interventions in church affairs set a precedent for future emperors.

Rigorism and Christology

See also:Gothic Christianity

Debates about thetraditores—Christians who had given up holy books to state authorities or made pagan sacrifices during the Great Persecution—intensified inNumidiain the 310s. The more radical, mainly rural clergy believed thattraditoresshould be rebaptized. They were known asDonatistsfor theirbishop of Carthage,Donatus Magnus.After threesynodscondemned Donatist views, Constantine ordered the confiscation of their churches, but he stopped their persecution after his troops slaughtered a Donatist congregation in 321.Donatism survived and the separate hierarchy of Donatist clergy endured for more than a century.

Theological debates about the relationship betweenGod the Fatherand Christ created a further schism. ALibyanpriestsAriusargued that Christ asGod the Sonwas the Father's creature, while his opponents, in particularPope Alexander I of Alexandria,maintained that the Father and the Son were identical in theTrinity.Anxious about church unity, Constantine summoned the bishops to the firstecumenical counciltoNicaeain May 325. The nearly 300 bishops who assembled at theFirst Council of Nicaeaadopted acreedemphasizing that the Son wasof the same natureas the Father. For Arius and his supporters, known asArians,did not accept theNicene Creed,Constantine exiled them.Their banishment did not heal the schism, and the Arian exiles were allowed to return, while the most prominent anti-Arian bishopsAthanasius of AlexandriaandMarcellus of Ancyrawere exiled.On his death bed, Constantine received baptism from an Arian bishop,Eusebius of Nicomedia.

In concert with most western bishops, Constantine II and Constans insisted on the Nicene Creed, but Constantius II and the majority of the eastern clergy sympathized with the Arians. Athanasius and Marcellus were restored to theirepiscopal sees,but in Constantinople Constantius replaced the NicenePaulwith Eusebius.He consecrated amoderate ArianpriestUlfilasbishop to lead a proselytizing mission among the Goths across the Danube in 341. Although seven years later Ulfilas was banned from the Gothic territory, Gothic converts continued his mission.In 338 Constantius achieved the deposition of Athanasius and Marcellus at a church council in Antioch, but they approachedPope Julius Ifor protection. The Pope acknowledged their orthodoxy, but they were declared heretics by 90 eastern bishops at a new synod. After anti-Arian riots in Constantinople, Constans persuaded Constantius to convoke the bishops to a new synod in 343. TheCouncil of Serdicaordered the restoration of Paul to Constantinople and Athanasius to Alexandria, but the conflict continued because Constantius refused the Nicene creeds and rival Christian communities continued to co-exist in the eastern provinces.

Julian allowed the bishops who had been exiled during Constantius II's reign to return to their original position, allegedly because he wanted to create instability in the Christian church. He did not persecute Christians, but failed to punish those who persecuted them. Examples include the Arian bishop of AlexandriaGeorge of Cappadociawho was lynched by a pagan mob in Alexandria.He ordered the removal of the relics of a popular local saintBabylasfrom a former temple of Apollo. When a fire destroyed the roof of the temple and the statute of Apollo, Julian accused the Christians of arsonry and closed their church in Antioch. His order about the sprinkling of foods with water used by pagan priests during sacrifices was particularly provocative for Christians.His successor, Jovian abolished Julian's anti-Christian edicts in the autumn of 363.

Valens appointed the moderate ArianDemophilusto the see of Constantinople, but the western bishops insisted on the Nicene doctrine. Theodosius I was the first emperor to rule as a full member of the Christian community, because he received baptism during a grave illness. Born inHispania,he had rejected Arianism. After his recuperation in 380, heissued an edictwarning his subject to adhere to the Nicene Creed, but did not prescribe sanctions against those who disobeyed. He dismissed Demophilus and summoned the bishops to a new synod to Constantinople in 381. TheFirst Council of Constantinoplereaffirmed the Nicene Creed, complementing it with a statement about the full divinity of theHoly Spiritin the Trinity. The council declared that only preceded by theBishops of Rome,the bishops of Constantinople would hold the second highest position in church hierarchy. Theodosius ordered the appointment of Nicene bishops to all eastern sees.The Goths and most other barbarians who settled in the empire remained Arians and their strong position in the imperial army secured the survival of Arianism.Their adherence to Arianism became a mark of their own ethnic identity and their attempts to have their own churches led to conflicts with Nicene bishops.Empress Justinawas unable to convince the powerful bishop of Milan,Ambrose,to make available a church to the Gothic guards of his son, Valentinian II in the early 380s.Ambrose also came into conflict with Theodosius. After imperial troopsmassacred 7,000 townspeoplein Thessaloniki in retaliation for the murder of the Arian German commander of their garrison, Ambrose forced Theodosius to do public penance.

Monasticism

Ascetics likePachomiusand Anthony who settled in remote places in the Egyptian desert originated Christian monasticism in the late 3rd century. Some of their followers lived a solitary life, others assembled at least once a week for a communal meal or prayer. Pachomius' monastic rules for his community atTabennaset a template for further foundations, but theCappadocianBasil of Caesarea's rules became even more popular. Ascetics of aristocratic background could cede their own houses and estates to monastic communities, likeMelania the Youngerwho convinced her husbandValerius Pinianusto establish a monastery in theHoly Land.The asceticJeromewas the spiritual instructor of a circle of wealthy Roman women, includingPaulaand her daughterBlaesilla.A previously lively girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the extreme, and after she died, Jerome warned her mother against excessive grief.

Judaism

Jews lived in most cities in the Roman Empire. They were theoretically led bytheir patriarchof allegedlyDavidic lineuntil the patriarchs' lineage died out in 429. Local Jewish communities accepted the leadership of their rabbis. Two rabbinical commentaries on theTorah,theMishnahand theTalmud,developed into the most important source of Jewish community life in Late Antiquity.Non-Jewish sympathizers, known asgod-fearersvisited synagogues and conversion to Judaism was not uncommon.Emperor Julian authorized the Jews to rebuild theirTemple in Jerusalem,allegedly to refuteChrist's prophecyon the Temple and to demonstrate the common features of pagan and Jewish sacrifices. The project failed because an earthquake destroyed the building site.Leading Christian intellectuals described Judaism as a major threat to Christianity from the late 4th century.John Chrysostomdelivered sermons against Christians who regularly visited synagogues in Antioch in 386 and 387. Ambrose of Milan sharply attacked the Jews in his correspondence with Theodosius I about the destruction of a Syrian synagogue by Roman soldiers. Patriarch Cyril organized a series of pogroms against the Jews of Alexandria in 415 and 416.Judaism was never outlawed, but Christian converts to Judaism lost their property and Jews could not hold imperial offices.

The Samaritans, who were related to the Jews, lived in Palestine and they made sacrifices in their temple onMount Gerizim.Armed conflicts between them and the local Christians were common in the late 5th century. In retaliation for their attack on Christians during Easter, their temple was transformed into a Christian church. After Justinian forbade their religious practices, tens of thousands of Samaritans fled to the Sassanian Empire. Those who remained in Palestine took up arms against the imperial governmentin 529,but the revolt was crushed and reportedly 100,000 Samaritans were executed.

Manichaeism

A Mesopotamian prophetManicombined the elements of PersianZoroastrianismwith Christianity in the mid-3rd century. He died in prison in the Sassanian Empire, but his disciples spread his teaching and establishedManichaeancommunities all over the Roman Empire.Manichaeism was adualisticreligion: its adherents distinguished a good and an evil god, and blamed the evil god for the creation of the material world. Their communities were divided into two groups: the ascetic Elects (who abstained from sex), and the Hearers (who lived a more ordinary life).Their asceticism and dualism were particularly attractive to young intellectuals, among them Augustine who adhered to their faith before his conversion to Christianity around 382. The persecution of Manichaeans started during Diocletian's reign primarily because of their association with Zoroastianism, although Manichaeism had been outlawed in the Sassanian Empire. Theodosius I renewed their persecution, describing them as followers of a sect who meet in "nefarious retreats and wicked recesses". From 382 Manichaeans could not inherit property and their religious meetings were forbidden, from the late 5th century they were sentenced to exile or death. Christians who were regarded heretics by state authorities were regularly labelled as Manichaeans.Priscillian,a Hispanian lay ascetic, who rejected marriage and promoted vegetarianism, was an early example. He and his closest disciplines were executed at Trier in 383.

See also

• Late Antiquity
• Migration Period
• Gothic Wars
• Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

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