Lavandula
| Lavender | |
|---|---|
| |
| Lavender flowers withbracts | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Lamiales |
| Family: | Lamiaceae |
| Subfamily: | Nepetoideae |
| Tribe: | Ocimeae |
| Genus: | Lavandula L. |
| Type species | |
| Lavandula spica | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
| |
Lavandula(common namelavender) is agenusof 47 known species ofperennialflowering plantsin themintsfamily,Lamiaceae.[1]It isnativeto theOld World,primarily found across the drier, warmer regions of mainlandEurasia,with an affinity for maritime breezes.[2]
Lavender is found on theIberian Peninsulaand around the entirety of theMediterranean coastline(including theAdriatic coast,theBalkans,theLevant,and coastalNorth Africa), in parts ofEasternandSouthern Africaand theMiddle East,as well as inSouth Asiaand on theIndian subcontinent.[3]
Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively intemperate climatesasornamental plantsfor garden and landscape use, for use asculinary herbs,and also commercially for the extraction ofessential oils.[4]Lavender is used intraditional medicineand as an ingredient incosmetics.
Description[edit]
Plant and leaves[edit]
The genus includes annual or short-livedherbaceousperennial plants,and shrub-like perennials,subshrubsor smallshrubs.[5]
Leaf shape is diverse across the genus. They aresimplein some commonly cultivated species; in other species, they are pinnately toothed, orpinnate,sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. In most species, the leaves are covered in fine hairs orindumentum,which normally contain essential oils.[5]
Flowers[edit]
Flowers are contained inwhorls,held on spikes rising above the foliage, the spikes being branched in some species. Some species produce coloredbractsat the tips of theinflorescences.The flowers may be blue, violet, or lilac in the wild species, occasionally blackish purple or yellowish. Thesepalcalyx is tubular. Thecorollais also tubular, usually with five lobes (the upper lip often cleft, and the lower lip has two clefts).[6]
Nomenclature and taxonomy[edit]
Lavandula stoechas,L. pedunculata,andL. dentatawere known in Roman times.[7]: 51 From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera,Stoechas(L. stoechas,L. pedunculata,L. dentata) andLavandula(L. spicaandL. latifolia), untilLinnaeuscombined them. He recognised only five species inSpecies Plantarum(1753),L. multifidaandL. dentata(Spain) andL. stoechasandL. spicafrom Southern Europe.L. pedunculatawas included withinL. stoechas.
By 1790,L. pinnataandL. carnosawere recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred toAnisochilus.By 1826,Frédéric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarrazlisted 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.[7]: 51
One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections includedStoechas,Spica,Subnudae,Pterostoechas,Chaetostachys,andDentatae.However, all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in theStoechasandSpicasections. There were four species withinStoechas(Lavandula stoechas,L. dentata,L. viridis,andL. pedunculata) whileSpicahad three (L. officinalis(nowL. angustifolia),L. latifoliaandL. lanata). She believed that the garden varieties werehybridsbetween true lavenderL. angustifoliaand spike lavender (L. latifolia).[8]
Lavandulahas three subgenera:[9][10][11]
- SubgenusLavandulais mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves. It contains the principal species grown as ornamental plants and for oils. They are found across the Mediterranean region to northeast Africa and western Arabia.
- SubgenusFabriciaconsists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the Atlantic to India. It contains some ornamental plants.
- SubgenusSabaudiaconstitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea, which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own genusSabaudia.
In addition, there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage.[5]
The first majorcladecorresponds to subgenusLavandula,and the secondFabricia.TheSabaudiagroup is less clearly defined. Within theLavandulaclade, the subclades correspond to the existing sections but placeDentataeseparately fromStoechas,not within it. Within theFabriciaclade, the subclades correspond toPterostoechas,Subnudae,andChaetostachys.
Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson andAndrews), in three subgenera (see table below). However, since lavendercross-pollinateseasily, countless variations present difficulties in classification.
Etymology[edit]
The English word lavender came into use in the13th century,and is generally thought to derive fromOld Frenchlavandre,[12]ultimately fromLatinlavarefromlavo(to wash),[13]referring to the use of blueinfusionsof the plants for bathing.[7]: 35 The botanic nameLavandulaas used byLinnaeusis considered to be derived from this and other European vernacular names for the plants.[14]
The names widely used for some of the species, "English lavender", "French lavender" and "Spanish lavender" are all imprecisely applied. "English lavender" is commonly used forL. angustifolia,though some references say the proper term is "Old English lavender".[15]The name "French lavender" may refer to eitherL. stoechasor toL. dentata."Spanish lavender" may refer toL. pedunculata,[16]L. stoechas,[17]orL. lanata.
Cultivation[edit]
The most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavenderLavandula angustifolia(formerly namedL. officinalis). A wide range ofcultivarscan be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species areL. stoechas,L. dentata,andL. multifida(Egyptian lavender).
Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Such spontaneous growth is usually harmless, but in some cases,Lavandulaspecies have becomeinvasive.For example, in Australia,L. stoechashas become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920.[18]It is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.[19]
Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun.[20]English lavender has a long germination process (14–28 days) and matures within 100–110 days.[21]All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation. In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot. Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.[22]It grows best in soils with a pH between 6 and 8.[23]Most lavender is hand-harvested, and harvest times vary depending on intended use.[23]
Lavender oil[edit]
Commercially, the plant is grown mainly for the production oflavender essential oil.English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an oil with sweet overtones and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications.[24]
Lavandula×intermedia,also known aslavandinorDutch lavender,hybrids ofL. angustifoliaandL. latifolia.[25]are widely cultivated for commercial use since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest.[26]They yield a similar essential oil, but with higher levels ofterpenesincludingcamphor,which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance, regarded by some as of lower quality than that of English lavender.
The USFood and Drug Administrationconsiders lavender asgenerally recognized as safe(GRAS) for human consumption.[27]The essential oil was used in hospitals duringWorld War I.[20]
Phytochemicals[edit]
Some 100 individualphytochemicalshave been identified in lavender oil, including major contents oflinalyl acetate(30–55%),linalool(20–35%),tannins(5–10%), andcaryophyllene(8%), with lesser amounts ofsesquiterpenoids,perillyl alcohols,esters,oxides,ketones,cineole,camphor,beta-ocimene,limonene,caproic acid,andcaryophylleneoxide.[24][27][28]The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species.[24]
Culinary use[edit]
Culinary lavender is usually English lavender, the most commonly used species in cooking (L. angustifolia'Munstead'). As an aromatic, it has a sweet fragrance with lemon or citrus notes.[29]It is used as a spice or condiment in pastas, salads and dressings, and desserts.[30][31]Their buds and greens are used in teas, and their buds, processed by bees, are the essential ingredient of amonofloral honey.[32]
Use of buds[edit]
For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also referred to as flowers, are used. Lavender greens have a more subtle flavor when compared torosemary.[33]
The potency of the lavender flowers increases with drying which necessitates more sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Chefs note to reduce by two-thirds the dry amount in recipes that call for fresh lavender buds.[29][34][better source needed]
Lavender buds can amplify both sweet and savory flavors in dishes and are sometimes paired with sheep's milk and goat's milk cheeses. Lavender flowers are occasionally blended withblack,green,orherbal teas.Lavender flavors baked goods and desserts, pairing especially well with chocolate. In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavendersconesandmarshmallows.[35][36]
Lavender buds are put into sugar for two weeks to allow the essential oils and fragrance to transfer; then the sugar itself is used in baking. Lavender can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. Lavender can be used decoratively in dishes or spirits, or as a decorative and aromatic in a glass of champagne. Lavender is used in savory dishes, giving stews and reduced sauces aromatic flair. It is also used to scent flans, custards, and sorbets.[29]
In honey[edit]
The flowers yield abundantnectar,from which bees make a high-qualityhoney.Monofloral honeyis produced primarily around theMediterranean Sea,and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used ascake decorations.It is also used to make "lavender sugar".[32]
Other uses[edit]
Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used inpotpourris.Lavender is also used as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to determoths.[37]Dried lavender flowers may be used for weddingconfetti.Lavender is also used inscented waters,soaps,andsachets.
In history and culture[edit]
Theancient Greekscalled the lavender herb νάρδος: nárdos, Latinized asnardus,after the Syrian city of Naarda (possibly the modern town ofDuhok,Iraq). It was also commonly callednard.[38]The species originally grown wasL. stoechas.[5]
DuringRomantimes, flowers were sold for 100denariiperpound,which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Itslate Latinname waslavandārius,fromlavanda(things to be washed), fromlavārefrom the verblavo(to wash).[13][39]
Since the late 19th century, lavenders have been associated with thequeer community.[40]
Culinary history[edit]
Spanish nard (Old French:"spykenard de spayn le pays"), referring toL. stoechas,is listed as an ingredient in making a spiced wine, namelyhippocras,inThe Forme of Cury.[41]
Lavender was introduced into England in the 1600s. It is said thatQueen Elizabethprized a lavender conserve (jam) at her table, so lavender was produced as a jam at that time, as well as used in teas both medicinally and for its taste.[29]
Lavender was not used in traditional southern French cooking at the turn of the 20th century. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B. Reboul'sCuisinière Provençale.[42]French lambs have been allowed to graze on lavender as it is alleged to make their meat more tender and fragrant.[29]In the 1970s, a blend of herbs calledherbes de Provencewas invented by spice wholesalers. Culinary lavender is added to the mixture in the North American version.[43]
In the 21st century, lavender is used in many world regions to flavor tea, vinegar,jellies,baked goods, and beverages.[44]
Herbalism[edit]
The German scientific committee ontraditional medicine,Commission E,reported uses of lavender flower in practices ofherbalism,including its use for restlessness orinsomnia,Roemheld syndrome,intestinal discomfort, andcardiovascular diseases,among others.[45]
Health precautions[edit]
The U.S.National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health(NCCIH) states that lavender is considered likely safe in food amounts, and thattopical usesmay causeallergic reactions.[46]NCCIH does not recommend the use of lavender while pregnant or breastfeeding because of lack of knowledge of its effects.[46]It recommends caution if young boys use lavender oil because of possible hormonal effects leading togynecomastia.[46][47][48]
A 2007 study examined the relationship between various fragrances andphotosensitivity,stating that lavender is known "to elicit cutaneous photo-toxic reactions", but does not inducephotohaemolysis.[49]
Adverse effects[edit]
Some people experiencecontact dermatitis,allergiceczema,or facialdermatitisfrom the use of lavender oil on skin.[24][46]
Taxonomic table[edit]
This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.
|
I. SubgenusLavendulaUpson & S.Andrews
II. SubgenusFabricia(Adams.) Upson & S.Andrews
III. SubgenusSabaudia(Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S.Andrews
|
Gallery[edit]
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Lavender flower -
Flower of cultivated lavender;Lavandula stoechas -
Lavender garden, India -
Lavandula fields nearDrama -
The flower ofLavandula angustifolia. -
Lavender growing at Kula Lavender Farm located in Maui, Hawaii -
Lavender plant by a mosque in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
References[edit]
- ^ab"LavandulaL. "Plants of the World Online.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2024.Retrieved24 May2024.
- ^"How do you plant a seaside garden? Planting for coastal conditions".Learning with Experts.27 January 2014.Retrieved18 June2024.
- ^Forney, Julie Martens (n.d.)."Outdoor flowering plants – mona lavender".HGTV.Retrieved19 October2018.
- ^"PlectranthusMona lavender ".Plant Finder.Missouri Botanical Garden.Retrieved19 October2018.
- ^abcdUpson, T.; Andrews, S. (2004).The Genus Lavandula.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004.ISBN9780881926422.Retrieved30 March2012.
- ^Bailey, L. H. (1924).Manual of Cultivated Plants.New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
- ^abcLis-Balchin, Maria, ed. (2002).Lavender: The genusLavandula.London, England, UK: Taylor and Francis.ISBN0-415-28486-4.
- ^Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 1937
- ^Habàn, Miroslav (16 May 2023)."Lavandula Species, Their Bioactive Phytochemicals, and Their Biosynthetic Regulation".International Journal of Molecular Sciences.24(10): 8831.doi:10.3390/ijms24108831.PMC10219037.PMID37240177.
- ^Moja S, Guitton Y, Nicole F, et al. (November 2016)."Genome size and plastid trnK-matK markers give new insights into the evolutionary history of the genus Lavandula L."Plant Biosystems.150(6): 1216–1224.Bibcode:2016PBios.150.1216M.doi:10.1080/11263504.2015.1014006.S2CID84974038– via Ebsco.
- ^Héral, Bénédicte; Stierlin, Émilie; Fernandez, Xavier; Michel, Thomas (2021). "Phytochemicals from the genus Lavandula: a review".Phytochemistry Reviews.20(4): 751–771.Bibcode:2021PChRv..20..751H.doi:10.1007/s11101-020-09719-z.S2CID224898995– via SpringerLink.
- ^Weekley, Ernest (1921)."lavender".An etymological dictionary of modern English.London: John Murray. p. 703.
- ^abLewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879)."lavo".A Latin Dictionary.Perseus Digital Library.
- ^"lavender | Etymology of lavender by etymonline".etymonline.Retrieved22 January2024.
- ^Life, Country (10 March 2014)."Plant of the week: Old English Lavender".Country Life.Retrieved18 June2024.
- ^Graham Rice (4 July 2023)."Best lavender varieties – 14 perfumed beauties for flowers and foliage".homesandgardens.Retrieved18 June2024.
- ^"23 Lavender Varieties for a Fragrant Garden Wherever You Live".Better Homes & Gardens.Retrieved18 June2024.
- ^ Carr, G.W; Yugovic, J.V; Robinson, K.E. (1992).Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria – conservation and management implications.Victoria, Australia: Department of Conservation and Environment and Ecological Horticulture.
- ^Csurches, S.; Edwards, R. (January 1998).National Weeds Program, Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia, Candidate Species for Preventative Control(PDF).Queensland Department of Natural Resources.ISBN0-642-21409-3.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 October 2007.
- ^abGrieve, M. (1971).A Modern Herbal.Vol. II. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.ISBN0-486-22799-5.
- ^"How to grow lavender in your garden this summer".Good Housekeeping.30 May 2024.Retrieved20 June2024.
- ^Brenzel, Kathleen Norris.The Sunset Western Garden Book(7th ed.).
- ^abErnst, Matt (2017)."Lavender"(PDF).University of Kentucky Center for Crop Diversification.
- ^abcd"Lavender".Drugs. 19 December 2022.Retrieved24 June2024.
- ^Mark Griffiths,Index of Garden Plants(Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1994.ISBN0-333-59149-6),
- ^National Non-Food Crops Centre."Lavender"Archived16 November 2009 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved on 23 April 2009.
- ^ab"Lavender".Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed), National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 3 December 2018.PMID30000925.Retrieved15 August2019.
- ^Umezu, Toyoshi; Nagano, Kimiyo; Ito, Hiroyasu; Kosakai, Kiyomi; Sakaniwa, Misao; Morita, Masatoshi (1 December 2006). "Anticonflict effects of lavender oil and identification of its active constituents".Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.85(4): 713–721.doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.10.026.PMID17173962.S2CID21779233.
- ^abcdeLavenderWhatsCookingAmerica.net
- ^Pasta With Shredded Vegetables and LavenderRecipe, New York Times, 27 August 2008
- ^M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist (ed.).Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses(English).Orange Judd Company.
- ^ab"Cooking with Lavender – Purple Haze Lavender (Sequim, WA)".Purple Haze Lavender.Archived fromthe originalon 17 April 2010.Retrieved25 August2008.
- ^"Cooking with Lavender?".Chowhound.24 June 2009.Retrieved16 February2017.
- ^"Cooking With Lavender",Bon Appetit,27 March 2015
- ^Stradley, Linda (22 April 2015)."Lavender Scones, Whats Cooking America".What's Cooking America.Retrieved16 February2017.
- ^Maclain, Ben (2 May 2015)."Lavender Marshmallows – Havoc In The Kitchen".Havoc in the Kitchen.Archived fromthe originalon 30 October 2016.Retrieved16 February2017.
- ^McCray, Carole."Lavender – the loveliest of herbs".The Register-Guard.Retrieved17 November2020.
- ^The origin of most of these quotes comes from Dr. William Thomas Fernie, in his book "Herbal Simples" (Bristol Pub., second edition, 1897),page 298:
'By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant "Nard." St. Mark mentions this as Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans, because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with great caution.'
- ^Oxford English Dictionary(second ed.). 1989.
Note however that Upson and Andrews refer to research on bathing in the Roman Empire, and state that there is no mention of the use of lavender in works on this subject.
- ^"How Lavender Became a Symbol of LGBTQ Resistance".History News Network.4 June 2020.Retrieved29 January2024.
- ^"The Forme of Cury".Project Gutenberg.Retrieved29 October2020.
PUR FAIT YPOCRAS. XX.IX. XI. Treys Unces de canett. & iii unces de gyngeuer, spykenard de Spayn le pays dun denerer, garyngale, clowes, gylofre, poeurer long, noiez mugadez, maziozame cardemonij de chescun i quart' douce grayne & de paradys stour de queynel de chescun dim unce de toutes, soit fait powdour &c.
- ^J.-B. Reboul;Cuisinière Provençale(1910)
- ^Laget, F. (2005). "From its Birthplace in Egypt to Marseilles, an Ancient Trade: Drugs and Spices".Diogenes.52(3): 131–139.doi:10.1177/0392192105055941.S2CID144212782.
- ^Charles, Denys J. (2012),"Lavender",Antioxidant Properties of Spices, Herbs and Other Sources,New York, NY: Springer New York, p. 365,ISBN9781461443100,retrieved5 September2021
- ^"Expanded Commission E monograph: Lavender flower".cms.herbalgram.org.Integrative Medicine Communications, Germany; from the American Botanical Council. 2000.Retrieved18 October2018.
- ^abcd"Lavender".National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 August 2020.Retrieved4 July2022.
- ^"Oils 'make male breasts develop'".British Broadcasting Corporation. February 2007.Retrieved17 March2018.
- ^"More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'".British Broadcasting Corporation. March 2018.Retrieved17 March2018.
- ^Placzek, M; Frömel, W; Eberlein, B; Gilbertz, KP; Przybilla, B (2007)."Evaluation of phototoxic properties of fragrances".Acta Dermato-Venereologica.87(4): 312–6.doi:10.2340/00015555-0251.PMID17598033.
Also, oils of lemon, lavender, lime, sandalwood, and cedar are known to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions, but lavender, sandalwood, and cedar oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our assay...Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil
Further reading[edit]
- Upson T, Andrews S.The Genus Lavandula.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004
- United States Department of Agriculture GRIN: Lavandula(archived 12 May 2013)
External links[edit]
