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Left-wing politicsdescribes the range ofpolitical ideologiesthat support and seek to achievesocial equalityandegalitarianism,often in opposition tosocial hierarchyas a whole[1][2][3][4]or certain social hierarchies.[5]Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished[1]through radical means that change the nature of the society they are implemented in.[5]According to emeritus professor of economics Barry Clark, supporters of left-wing politics "claim that human development flourishes when individuals engage in cooperative, mutually respectful relations that can thrive only when excessive differences in status, power, and wealth are eliminated."[6]

Within theleft–right political spectrum,LeftandRightwere coined during theFrench Revolution,referring to the seating arrangement in the FrenchNational Assembly.Those who sat on the left generally opposed theAncien Régimeand theBourbonmonarchyand supported the Revolution, the creation of ademocratic republicand thesecularisationof society[7]while those on the right were supportive of the traditional institutions of the Ancien Régime. Usage of the termLeftbecame more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to theIndependents.[8]The wordwingwas first appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, andleft-wingwas applied to those who were unorthodox in their religious or political views.

Ideologies considered to beleft-wingvary greatly depending on the placement along thepolitical spectrumin a given time and place. At the end of the 18th century, upon the founding of the firstliberal democracies,the termLeftwas used to describeliberalismin the United States andrepublicanismin France, supporting a lesser degree ofhierarchical decision-makingthan theright-wing politicsof thetraditional conservativesandmonarchists.Inmodernpolitics, the termLefttypically applies to ideologies and movements to the left ofclassical liberalism,supporting some degree ofdemocracy in the economic sphere.Today, ideologies such associal liberalismandsocial democracyare considered to becentre-left,whilethe Leftis typically reserved for movements morecritical of capitalism,[9]including thelabour movement,socialism,anarchism,communism,Marxismandsyndicalism,each of which rose to prominence in the 19th and 20th centuries.[10] In addition, the termleft-winghas also been applied to a broad range ofculturally liberalsocial movements,[11]including thecivil rights movement,feminist movement,LGBT rights movement,abortion-rights movements,multiculturalism,anti-war movementandenvironmental movement[12][13]as well as a wide range ofpolitical parties.[14][15][16]

Positions

The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics.

Economics

See also:Anarchist economics,Marxism and Keynesianism,andSocialist economics

Left-leaning economic beliefs range fromKeynesianeconomics and thewelfare statethroughindustrial democracyand thesocial marketto thenationalizationof the economy andcentral planning,[17]to theanarcho-syndicalistadvocacy of a council-based and self-managedanarchist communism.During theIndustrial Revolution,leftists supportedtrade unions.At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy.[18]Leftists continue to criticize the perceived exploitative nature ofglobalization,the "race to the bottom"and unjust lay-offs and exploitation of workers. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the belief that the government (ruling in accordance with the interests of the people) ought to be directly involved in the day-to-day workings of an economy declined in popularity amongst thecentre-left,especiallysocial democratswho adopted theThird Way.Left-wing politics are typically associated with popular or state control of major political and economic institutions.[19]

Other leftists believe inMarxian economics,named after the economic theories ofKarl Marx.Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is independent of his advocacy ofrevolutionary socialismor his belief in the inevitability of aproletarian revolution.[20][21]Marxian economics do not exclusively rely on Marx and draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. Thedictatorship of the proletariatandworkers' stateare terms used by some Marxists, particularlyLeninistsandMarxist–Leninists,to describe what they see as a temporary state between thecapitaliststate of affairsand acommunist society.Marx defined the proletariat as salaried workers, in contrast to thelumpenproletariat,who he defined as the outcasts of society such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes.[22]The political relevance of farmers has divided the left. InDas Kapital,Marx scarcely mentioned the subject.[23]Mikhail Bakuninthought thelumpenproletariatwas a revolutionary class, whileMao Zedongbelieved that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about theproletarian revolution.

Left-libertarians,anarchistsandlibertarian socialistsbelieve in adecentralizedeconomy run bytrade unions,workers' councils,cooperatives,municipalitiesand communes, opposing bothstateandprivatecontrol of the economy, preferringsocial ownershipand local control in which a nation of decentralized regions is united in aconfederation.Theglobal justice movement,also known as theanti-globalisation movementand thealter-globalisationmovement, protests againstcorporateeconomic globalisationdue to its negative consequences for the poor, workers, the environment, and small businesses.[24][25][26]

Leftists generally believe in innovation in various technological and philosophical fields and disciplines to help causes they support.[5]

Environment

See also:Eco-socialism,Green anarchism,andGreen politics

One of the foremost left-wing advocates was Thomas Paine, one of the first individuals sinceleftandrightbecame political terms to describe the collective human ownership of the world which he speaks of in Agrarian Justice.[27]As such, most of left-wing thought and literature regarding environmentalism stems from this duty of ownership and the aforementioned form of cooperative ownership means that humanity must take care of the Earth. This principle is reflected in much of the historical left-wing thought and literature that came afterwards, although there were disagreements about what this entailed. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist philosopher and scholarWilliam Morrisarguably had a concern for environmental matters.[28][29][30][31]According to Marx, "[e]ven an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the earth. They are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations".[28][32]Following the Russian Revolution, environmental scientists such as revolutionaryAlexander Bogdanovand theProletkultorganisation made efforts to incorporate environmentalism into Bolshevism and "integrate production with natural laws and limits" in the first decade ofSovietrule, beforeJoseph Stalinattacked ecologists and the science of ecology, purged environmentalists and promoted thepseudoscienceofTrofim Lysenkoduring his rule up until his death in 1953.[33][34][35]Similarly,Mao Zedongrejected environmentalism and believed that based on the laws of historical materialism, all of nature must be put into the service of revolution.[36]

From the 1970s onwards, environmentalism became an increasing concern of the left, with social movements and several unions campaigning on environmental issues and causes. In Australia, the left-wingBuilders Labourers Federation,led by the communist Jack Mundy, united with environmentalists to placegreen banson environmentally destructive development projects.[37]Several segments of the socialist and Marxist left consciously merged environmentalism and anti-capitalism into aneco-socialistideology.[38]Barry Commonerarticulated a left-wing response toThe Limits to Growthmodel that predicted catastrophicresource depletionand spurred environmentalism, postulating that capitalist technologies were the key cause responsible for environmental degradation, as opposed to human population pressures.[39]Environmental degradation can be seen as a class or equity issue, as environmental destruction disproportionately affects poorer communities and countries.[40]

Global warming was the cover story of this 2007 issue of theMs.magazine.

Several left-wing or socialist groupings have an overt environmental concern and several green parties contain a strong socialist presence. TheGreen Party of England and Walesfeatures an eco-socialist group, theGreen Left,which was founded in June 2005. Its members held several influential positions within the party, including both the former Principal SpeakersSiân BerryandDerek Wall,himself an eco-socialist and Marxist academic.[41]In Europe, severalgreen leftpolitical parties such as theEuropean United Left–Nordic Green Leftcombine traditional social-democratic values such as a desire for greater economic equality and workers rights with demands for environmental protection. Democratic socialistBolivian presidentEvo Moraleshas tracedenvironmental degradationto capitalistconsumerism,[42]stating that "[t]he Earth does not have enough for the North to live better and better, but it does have enough for all of us to live well".James Hansen,Noam Chomsky,Raj Patel,Naomi Klein,The Yes MenandDennis Kucinichhold similar views.[43][44][page needed][45][46][47][48]

Inclimate change mitigation,the Left is also divided over how to effectively and equitably reducecarbon emissionsas the center-left often advocates a reliance on market measures such asemissions tradingand acarbon taxwhile those further to the left support direct government regulation and intervention in the form of aGreen New Deal,either alongside or instead of market mechanisms.[49][50][51]

Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism

See also:Anarchism and nationalism,Anti-imperialism,Internationalism (politics),Left-wing nationalism,Proletarian internationalism,andAnti-Stalinist Left

The question ofnationality,imperialismandnationalismhas been a central feature of political debates on the Left. During the French Revolution, nationalism was a key policy of the Republican Left.[52]The Republican Left advocated forcivic nationalism[7]and argued that the nation is a "daily plebiscite" formed by the subjective "will to live together". Related torevanchism,the belligerent will to take revenge against Germany and retake control ofAlsace-Lorraine,nationalism was sometimes opposed toimperialism.In the 1880s, there was a debate between leftists such as theRadicalGeorges Clemenceau,theSocialistJean Jaurèsand the nationalistMaurice Barrès,who argued that colonialism diverted France from liberating the "blue line of theVosges",in reference to Alsace-Lorraine; and the"colonial lobby"such asJules Ferryof theModerate Republicans,Léon Gambettaof theRepublicansandEugène Etienne,the president of the Parliamentary Colonial Group. After theantisemiticDreyfus Affairin which officerAlfred Dreyfuswas falsely convicted of sedition and exiled to a penal colony in 1894 before being exonerated in 1906, nationalism in the form ofBoulangismincreasingly became associated with the far-right.[53]

TheMarxistsocial classtheory ofproletarian internationalismasserts that members of theworking classshould act in solidarity with working people in other countries in pursuit of a commonclass interest,rather than only focusing on their own countries. Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan: "Workers of the world, unite!",the last line ofThe Communist Manifesto.Union members had learned that more members meant more bargaining power. Taken to an international level, leftists argued that workers should act in solidarity with the international proletariat in order to further increase the power of the working class. Proletarian internationalism saw itself as a deterrent against war and international conflicts, because people with a common interest are less likely to take up arms against one another, instead focusing on fighting thebourgeoisieas theruling class.According to Marxist theory, theantonymof proletarian internationalism isbourgeois nationalism.Some Marxists, together with others on the left, viewnationalism,[54]racism[55](including antisemitism)[56]andreligionasdivide and conquertactics used by the ruling classes to prevent theworking classfrom uniting against them in solidarity with one another. Left-wing movements have often taken up anti-imperialist positions. Anarchism has developed a critique of nationalism that focuses on nationalism's role in justifying and consolidating state power and domination. Through its unifying goal, nationalism strives forcentralisation(both in specific territories and in a ruling elite of individuals) while it prepares a population for capitalist exploitation. Within anarchism, this subject has been extensively discussed byRudolf Rockerin his book titledNationalism and Cultureand by the works ofFredy Perlmansuch asAgainst His-Story, Against LeviathanandThe Continuing Appeal of Nationalism.[57]

The failure of revolutions inGermanyandHungaryin the 1918–1920 years endedBolshevikhopes for an imminentworld revolutionand led to the promotion of the doctrine ofsocialism in one countrybyJoseph Stalin.In the first edition of his book titledOsnovy Leninizma(Foundations of Leninism,1924), Stalin argued that revolution in one country is insufficient. By the end of that year in the second edition of the book, he argued that the "proletariatcan and must build the socialist society in one country ". In April 1925,Nikolai Bukharinelaborated on the issue in his brochure titledCan We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat?,whose position was adopted as state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article titledOn the Issues of Leninism(К вопросам ленинизма) was published. This idea was opposed byLeon Trotskyand his supporters, who declared the need for an international "permanent revolution"and condemned Stalin for betraying the goals and ideals of the socialist revolution. VariousFourth Internationalistgroups around the world who describe themselves asTrotskyistsee themselves as standing in this tradition whileMaoist Chinaformally supported the theory of socialism in one country.

European social democrats strongly supportEuropeanismandsupranationalintegration within theEuropean Union,although there is a minority of nationalists andEuroscepticson the left. Several scholars have linked this form of left-wing nationalism to the pressure generated by economic integration with other countries, often encouraged byneoliberalfree tradeagreements. This view is sometimes used to justify hostility towards supranational organizations. Left-wing nationalism can also refer to any form of nationalism which emphasizes a leftist working-classpopulistagenda that seeks to overcome exploitation or oppression by other nations. Many Third Worldanti-colonialist movementshave adopted leftist and socialist ideas.Third-Worldismis a tendency within leftist thought that regards the division betweenFirst WorldandSecond Worlddeveloped countriesandThird Worlddeveloping countriesas being of high political importance. This tendency supportsdecolonizationandnational liberation movementsagainst imperialism by capitalists. Third-Worldism is closely connected withAfrican socialism,Latin American socialism,Maoism,[58][third-party source needed]pan-Africanismandpan-Arabism.Several left-wing groups in the developing world such as theZapatista Army of National Liberationin Mexico, theAbahlali baseMjondoloinSouth Africaand theNaxalitesin India have argued that the First World and the Second World Left takes a racist and paternalistic attitude towards liberation movements in the Third World.[citation needed]

Religion

See also:Anarchism and religion,Buddhist socialism,Christian anarchism,Christian communism,Christian left,Christian socialism,Jewish left,andIslamic socialism

The originalFrench Leftwas firmlyanti-clerical,strongly opposing the influence of theRoman Catholic Churchand supportingatheismand theseparation of church and state,ushering in a policy known aslaïcité.[7]Karl Marxasserted that "religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is theopium of the people".[59]In Soviet Russia, theBolsheviksunderVladimir Leninoriginally embraced an ideological principle which professed that all religion would eventually atrophy and resolved to eradicate organizedChristianityand other religious institutions. In 1918, 10Russian Orthodoxhierarchs were summarily executed by a firing squad, and children were deprived of any religious education outside of the home.[60]

Today in theWestern world,those on the Left generally supportsecularizationand the separation of church and state. However, religious beliefs have also been associated with many left-wing movements such as theprogressive movement,theSocial Gospelmovement, thecivil rights movement,theanti-war movement,the anti-capital punishmentmovement andLiberation Theology.Earlyutopian socialistthinkers such asRobert Owen,Charles Fourierand theComte de Saint-Simonbased their theories of socialism upon Christian principles. Other common leftist concerns such aspacifism,social justice,racial equality,human rightsand the rejection of capitalism and excessivewealthcan be found in theBible.[61]

In the late 19th century, theProtestantSocial Gospel movement arose in the United States which integratedprogressiveandsocialistthought withChristianitythrough faith-based social activism. Other left-wing religious movements include Buddhist socialism, Jewish socialism and Islamic socialism. There have been alliances between the left and anti-warMuslims,such as theRespect Partyand theStop the War Coalitionin Britain. In France, the left has been divided over moves to ban thehijabfrom schools, with some leftists supporting a ban based on the separation of church and state in accordance with the principle oflaïcitéand other leftists opposing the prohibition based on personal and religious freedom.

Social progressivism and counterculture

See also:Counterculture,New Left,Socialism and LGBT rights,andSocialist feminism

Social progressivismis another common feature of modern leftism, particularly in the United States, where social progressives played an important role in theabolition of slavery,[62]the enshrinement ofwomen's suffragein theUnited States Constitution,[63]and the protection ofcivil rights,LGBTQ rights,women's rightsandmulticulturalism.Progressives have both advocated foralcohol prohibitionlegislation and worked towards its repeal in the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s. Current positions associated with social progressivism in theWestern worldinclude strong opposition to thedeath penalty,torture,mass surveillance,and thewar on drugs,and support forabortionrights,cognitive liberty,LGBTQ rights including legal recognition ofsame-sex marriage,same-sex adoptionof children, theright to change one's legal gender,distribution ofcontraceptives,and public funding of embryonicstem-cell research.The desire for an expansion of social and civil liberties often overlaps that of thelibertarianmovement. Public education was a subject of great interest to groundbreaking social progressives such asLester Frank WardandJohn Dewey,who believed that a democratic society and system of government was practically impossible without a universal and comprehensive nationwide system of education.

Various counterculture and anti-war movements in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the New Left. Unlike the earlier leftist focus onlabour unionactivism and a proletarian revolution, the New Left instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly calledsocial activism.The New Left in the United States is associated with thehippie movement,mass protest movements on school campuses and a broadening of focus from protestingclass-based oppression to include issues such asgender,raceandsexual orientation.The British New Left was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of theOld Left.The New Left opposed prevailing authoritarian structures in society which it designated as "The Establishment"and became known as the" Anti-Establishment ". The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers en masse, but instead concentrated on a social activist approach to organization, convinced that they could be the source for a better kind ofsocial revolution.This view has been criticized by severalMarxists,especiallyTrotskyists,who characterized this approach as "substitutionism" which they described as a misguided and non-Marxist belief that other groups in society could "substitute" for and "replace" the revolutionary agency of the working class.[64][65]

Many earlyfeministsand advocates of women's rights were considered a part of the Left by their contemporaries. Feminist pioneerMary Wollstonecraftwas influenced byThomas Paine.Many notable leftists have been strong supporters of gender equality such asMarxistphilosophers and activistsRosa Luxemburg,Clara ZetkinandAlexandra Kollontai,anarchistphilosophers and activists such asVirginia Bolten,Emma GoldmanandLucía Sánchez Saornilanddemocratic socialistphilosophers and activists such asHelen KellerandAnnie Besant.[66]However, Marxists such as Rosa Luxemburg,[67]Clara Zetkin,[68][69]and Alexandra Kollontai,[70][71]who are supporters of radical social equality for women and have rejected and opposedliberal feminismbecause they considered it to be a capitalistbourgeoisideology. Marxists were responsible for organizing the firstInternational Working Women's Dayevents.[72]

Thewomen's liberation movementis closely connected to the New Left and othernew social movementswhich openly challenged the orthodoxies of the Old Left. Socialist feminism as exemplified by theFreedom Socialist PartyandRadical WomenandMarxist feminism,spearheaded bySelma James,saw themselves as a part of the Left that challenges male-dominated andsexiststructures within the Left. The connection between left-wing ideologies and the struggle for LGBTQ rights also has an important history. Prominent socialists who were involved in early struggles for LGBTQ rights includeEdward Carpenter,Oscar Wilde,Harry Hay,Bayard RustinandDaniel Guérin,among others. The New Left is also strongly supportive of LGBTQ rights and liberation, having been instrumental in the founding of theLGBTQ rights movementin the aftermath of theStonewall Riotsof 1969. Contemporary leftist activists and socialist countries such as Cuba are actively supportive of LGBTQ+ people and are involved in the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights and equality.

History

See also:American Left,French Left,Left–right political spectrum,andHistory of political thought
The 5 May 1789 opening of theEstates General of 1789in Versailles

In politics, the termLeftderives from theFrench Revolutionas the political groups opposed to the royal veto privilege (MontagnardandJacobindeputies from theThird Estate) generally sat to the left of the presiding member's chair in parliament while the ones in favour of the royal veto privilege sat on its right.[73]That habit began in the original FrenchNational Assembly.Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividingLeft and Rightwas between supporters of the Frenchrepublicand those of themonarchy's privileges.[7]: 2 TheJune Days uprisingduring theSecond Republicwas an attempt by the Left to re-assert itself after the1848 Revolution,but only a small portion of the population supported this.

In the mid-19th century,nationalism,socialism,democracyandanti-clericalismbecame key features of the French Left. AfterNapoleon III's1851 coupand the subsequent establishment of theSecond Empire,Marxismbegan to rival radical republicanism andutopian socialismas a force within left-wing politics. The influentialCommunist ManifestobyKarl MarxandFriedrich Engels,published amidst the wave ofrevolutions of 1848across Europe, asserted that all of human history is defined byclass struggle.They predicted that aproletarianrevolution would eventually overthrowbourgeoiscapitalismand create astateless,moneylessandclasslesscommunist society.It was in this period that the wordwingwas appended to both Left and Right.[74]

TheInternational Workingmen's Association(1864–1876), sometimes called the First International, brought together delegates from many different countries, with many different views about how to reach a classless and stateless society. Following a split between supporters of Marx andMikhail Bakunin,anarchists formed theSaint-Imier Internationaland later theInternational Workers' Association (IWA–AIT).[75]TheSecond International(1888–1916) became divided over the issue ofWorld War I.Those who opposed the war, among themVladimir LeninandRosa Luxemburg,saw themselves as further to the left.

In the United States, leftists such associal liberals,progressivesandtrade unionistswere influenced by the works ofThomas Paine,who introduced the concept ofasset-based egalitarianismwhich theorises thatsocial equalityis possible by a redistribution of resources. After theReconstructionera in the aftermath of theAmerican Civil War,the phrase "the Left" was used to describe those who supported trade unions, thecivil rights movementand theanti-war movement.[76][77]More recently,left-wingandright-winghave often been used as synonyms for theDemocraticandRepublicanparties, or as synonyms forliberalismandconservatism,respectively.[78][79][80][full citation needed][81]

Since the Right was populist, both in theWesternand theEastern Blocanything viewed as avant-garde art was called leftist across Europe, thus the identification of Picasso'sGuernicaas "leftist" in Europe[82][page needed]and the condemnation of the Russian composerShostakovich's opera (The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District) inPravdaas follows: "Here we have 'leftist' confusion instead of natural, human music".[83][page needed]

Types

The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges fromcentre-lefttofar-leftorultra-left.The termcentre-leftdescribes a position within the political mainstream that accepts capitalism and a market economy. The termsfar-leftandultra-leftare used for positions that are moreradical,more strongly rejectingcapitalismand mainstreamrepresentative democracy,instead advocating for a socialist society based oneconomic democracyanddirect democracy,representing economic, political and social democracy. The centre-left includessocial democrats,social liberals,progressivesandgreens.Centre-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in amixed economywith an empoweredpublic sectorand a thrivingprivate sector.Centre-left policies tend to favour limitedstate interventionin matters pertaining to thepublic interest.

In several countries, the termsfar-leftandradical lefthave been associated with many varieties ofanarchism,autonomismandcommunism.They have been used to describe groups that advocateanti-capitalismandeco-terrorism.In France, a distinction is made between the centre-left and the left represented by theSocialist Partyand theFrench Communist Partyand the far-left as represented byanarcho-communists,MaoistsandTrotskyists.[84]TheUnited States Department of Homeland Securitydefines "left-wing extremism" as groups that "seek to bring about change through violent revolution, rather than through established political processes".[85]Similar tofar-right politics,extremistfar-left politics have motivatedpolitical violence,radicalization,genocide,terrorism,sabotage and damage to property, the formation ofmilitantorganizations,political repression,conspiracism,xenophobia,andnationalism.[86][87][88][89][90]

In China, the termChinese New Leftdenotes those who oppose theeconomic reformsenacted byDeng Xiaopingin the 1980s and 1990s, favour instead the restoration of Maoist policies and the immediate transition to a socialist economy.[91]In theWestern world,the termNew Leftis used for social and cultural politics.

In the United Kingdom during the 1980s, the termhard leftwas applied to supporters ofTony Bennsuch as theCampaign Groupand those involved in theLondon Labour Briefingnewspaper as well as Trotskyist groups such asMilitantand theAlliance for Workers' Liberty.[92]In the same period, the termsoft leftwas applied to supporters of the BritishLabour Partywho were perceived to be more moderate and closer to the centre, acceptingKeynesianism.Under the leadership ofTony BlairandGordon Brown,the Labour Party adopted theThird Wayand rebranded itself asNew Labourin order to promote the notion that it was less left-wing than it had been in the past to accommodate theneoliberaltrend arising since the 1970s with thedisplacement of Keynesianismandpost-war social democracy.One of the first actions ofEd Miliband,the Labour Party leader who succeeded Blair and Brown, was the rejection of the New Labour label and a promise to abandon the Third Way and turn back to the left. However, Labour's voting record in theHouse of Commonsfrom 2010 to 2015 indicated that the Labour Party under Miliband had maintained the same distance from the left as it did under Blair.[93][94]In contrast, the election ofJeremy Corbynas the Labour Party leader was viewed by scholars and political commentators as Labour turning back toward its more classical socialist roots, rejecting neoliberalism and the Third Way whilst supporting ademocratic socialistsociety and an end toausteritymeasures.

See also

References

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Further reading

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