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Legal recognition of intersex people

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Not to be confused withLegal recognition of non-binary gender.
Intersextopics
Intersex flag
Human rightsandlegal issues
Medicineand biology
Society and culture
Historyand events
Rights by country
See also

Intersexpeople are born withsexcharacteristics, such aschromosomes,gonads,orgenitalsthat, according to theUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights,"do not fit typicalbinarynotions ofmaleorfemalebodies ".[1]

According to theAsia Pacific Forumof National Human Rights Institutions, few countries have provided for the legal recognition of intersex people. The Asia Pacific Forum states that the legal recognition of intersex people is firstly about access to the same rights as other men and women, when assigned male or female; secondly it is about access to administrative corrections to legal documents when an originalsex assignmentis not appropriate; and thirdly it is not about the creation of athird sexor gender classification for intersex people as a population but it is, instead, about self determination.[2]

The Asia Pacific Forum, theCouncil of Europe,[3]and theMalta declarationof the ThirdInternational Intersex Forumhave called fornon-binarygender classifications to be available on a voluntary, opt-in basis.[2]The Council of Europe has called for greater consideration of the implications of new sex classifications on intersex people,[3]while the Third International Intersex Forum called for the long term removal of sex or gender from official identification documents.[2]

In some countries, legal recognition may be limited, access to any form of birth certificate may be difficult,[4]while some other countries recognise that intersex people may have non-binary gender identities.[2]Sociological research inAustralia,a country with a non-binary gender marker, has shown that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics may prefer that option.[5]

History

[edit]
Edward Coke,The First Part of theInstitutes of the Lawes of England(1st ed, 1628, title page) - 20131124
Main article:Intersex in history

In European societies,Roman law,post-classicalCanon law,and laterCommon law,referred to a person's sex as male, female or hermaphrodite, with legal rights as male or female depending on the characteristics that appeared most dominant. Under Roman law, a hermaphrodite had to be classed as either male or female.[6]The 12th-centuryDecretum Gratianistates that "Whether an hermaphrodite may witness a testament, depends on which sex prevails".[7][8][9]The foundation of common law, the 16th CenturyInstitutes of the Lawes of Englanddescribed how a hermaphrodite could inherit "either as male or female, according to that kind of sexe which doth prevaile."[10][11]Single cases have been described in Canon law and other legal cases over the centuries.

Intersex scholarMorgan Holmesstates that much early anthropological material on non-European cultures described gender systems with more than two categories as "primitive", but also that subsequent analysis of third sexes and genders is simplistic or romanticized:[12]

much of the existing work on cultural systems that incorporate a 'third sex' portray simplistic visions in which societies with more than two sex/gender categories are cast as superior to those that divide the world into just two. I argue that to understand whether a system is more or less oppressive than another we have to understand how it treats its various members, not only its 'thirds'...recognitionof third sexes and third genders is not equal tovaluingthe presence of those who were neither male nor female, and often hinges on the explicit devaluation of women[12]

In recent years, civil society organization and human rights institutions have raised issues relating to legal recognition.

Intersex rights

[edit]
Main article:Intersex human rights

Research indicates a growing consensus that diverse intersex bodies are normal—if relatively rare—forms of human biology,[13]and human rights institutions are placing increasing scrutiny on medical practices and issues of discrimination against intersex people. A 2013 first international pilot study.Human Rights between the Sexes,byDan Christian Ghattas,[14][15]found that intersex people are discriminated against worldwide: "Intersex individuals are considered individuals with a «disorder» in all areas in which Western medicine prevails. They are more or less obviously treated as sick or «abnormal», depending on the respective society."[14]

In 2015, an Issue Paper onHuman rights and intersex peopleby theCouncil of Europehighlighted several areas of concern, including legal recognition:

  • Equal right to life and prevention of medical treatments without informed consent including treatments considered unnecessary;
  • Removal of Intersex as a curable medical condition but one which can have medical treatments with informed consent;
  • Equal treatment under the law; including specific legal provisions similar to other classes covered;
  • Access to information, medical records, peer and other counselling and support;
  • Self-determinationin gender recognition, through expeditious access to official documents.[3]
[edit]

According to theAsia Pacific Forumof National Human Rights Institutions, few countries have provided for the legal recognition of intersex people. The Asia Pacific Forum states that the legal recognition of intersex people is firstly about access to the same rights as other men and women, when assigned male or female; secondly it is about access to administrative corrections to legal documents when an originalsex assignmentis not appropriate; and thirdly, while opt in schemes may help some individuals, legal recognition is not about the creation of a third sex or gender classification for intersex people as a population.[2]

Gender identities

[edit]

Like all individuals, some intersex individuals may be raised as a particular sex (male or female) but then identify with another later in life, while most do not.[16][17][18]A 2012 clinical review suggests that between 8.5-20% of persons with intersex conditions may experiencegender dysphoria,distress or discomfort as a result of thesexandgenderthey wereassigned at birth.[19]

Like non-intersex people, some intersex individuals may not identify themselves as either exclusively female or exclusively male. Sociological research in Australia, a country with a third 'X' sex classification, shows that 19% of people born with atypical sex characteristics selected an "X" or "other" option, while 52% are women, 23% men, and 6% unsure.[5][20]At birth, 52% of persons in the study were assigned female, and 41% were assigned male.[5]

Research has also shown gender identities of intersex individuals to be independent ofsexual orientation.[21]

Intersex advocateMorgan Carpenterstates that intersex should not be reduced to a gender identity issue; "intersex as identity is polymorphic, but asserts the dignity of stigmatised embodiment."[22]Dan Christian Ghattasstates that "People who do not have an intersex body and want to use ‘intersex’ to describe their gender identity, should be aware of the fact that, unfortunately, they are actually making intersex human rights violations less visible."[23]

Access to identification documents

[edit]

Currently, depending on the jurisdiction, access to any birth certificate may be an issue,[4]including a birth certificate with a sex marker,[24]and in the absence of surgical requirements.[25]

In 2014 aKenyancourt ordered its government to issue a birth certificate to a five-year-old child born with ambiguous genitalia, necessary to allow the child to attend school and obtain a national identity document.[4]Many intersex persons inUgandaare understood to be stateless due to historical difficulties in obtaining identification documents, despite a birth registration law that permits intersex minors to change assignment.[26]

A 2017 submission by Justicia Intersex and Zwischengeschlecht to theUnited Nations Committee Against Tortureidentified twoArgentiniancases of children denied birth certificates without parental consent to irreversible medical interventions.[25]

Access to the same rights as other men and women

[edit]

TheAsia Pacific ForumofNational Human Rights Institutionsstates that:

Recognition before the law means having legal personhood and the legal protections that flow from that. For intersex people, this is neither primarily nor solely about amending birth registrations or other official documents. Firstly, it is about intersex people who have been issued a male or a female birth certificate being able to enjoy the same legal rights as other men and women[2]

Accessing the same rights as other men and women supposes the elimination of stigma and discrimination on grounds ofsex characteristics,andrights to physical integrity and freedom from torture and ill-treatment.

The Asia Pacific Forum also highlights access to sport and concerns withsex verificationpolicies.[2]Sex testing began at the1966 European Athletics Championshipsin response to suspicion that several of the best women athletes from theSoviet UnionandEastern Europewere actually men.[27]At the Olympics, testing was introduced in 1968. Initially, sex verification took the form of physical examinations. It subsequently evolved into chromosome testing, and later testosterone testing. Reports have shown how elite women athletes with intersex conditions have been humiliated, excluded, and suffered human rights violations as a result of sex verification testing.[28][29][30]Such cases have includedfemale genital mutilationand sterilization.[30]

Changing identification documents

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Access to a birth certificate with a correct sex marker may be an issue for intersex people who do not identify with their sex assigned at birth.[3][2]

Some countries have the gender self-determination legal model such asArgentina,Belgium,Malta,Denmark,Greece,France,Portugal,Norway,Chile,Uruguay,Luxembourg,Colombia,Ecuador,Iceland,andIrelandpermit changes to sex classifications via simple administrative methods.[31]Some countries, such as Vietnam, Thailand, Japan, some jurisdictions in both Australia and the United States and many European countries only permit changes to sex classifications followingsexual reassignment surgery.[2]Other countries do not permit intersex people to change sex assignment at all or, such as theUnited Kingdom,only by declaring that they are transgender and obtaining a diagnosis ofgender dysphoria.[32]

Third sex or gender classifications

[edit]
Nonbinary / third gender available as voluntary opt-in
Opt-in for intersex people only
Standard for third gender
Standard for intersex
Nonbinary / third gender not legally recognized / no data
Further information:Legal recognition of non-binary gender

The passports and identification documents ofAustralia,New Zealandand some other nationalities have adopted "X" as a valid third category besides "M" (male) and "F" (female), at least since 2003.[33][34]US states have recognised third options since at least 2012, in the case of an 'hermaphrodite' birth certificate sex marker in Ohio.[35]In 2013,Germanybecame the first European nation to register babies with characteristics of both sexes asindeterminate genderon birth certificates, amidst opposition and skepticism from intersex organisations who point out that the law mandates exclusion from male or female categories.[36][37][38][39]

US organizationIntersex Campaign for Equalitysuccessfully pursued third sex/gender classification through a federal court case filed onIntersex Awareness Day,October, 26, 2015. On November 22, 2016, theUnited StatesDistrict Court for the District of Colorado ruled in favor of intersex Navy veteranDana Zzyym,associate director of Intersex Campaign for Equality, stating that the State Department violated federal law in denying Zzyym a passport because they did not select M/male or F/female as their sex marker.[40][41] On October 27, 2021, the very first US X Passport was issued to Dana Zzyym. As stated byLambda Legal,Zzyym's legal representatives in the lawsuit, the X is a "sex/gender" marker representing both intersex and non-binary/gender nonconforming people.[42]The X passport was issued to Zzyym because their medical records demonstrated to the courts that they are not male or female but intersex; in keeping with federal precedent regarding M/F markers, and statewide precedent regarding the X markers, the passport X represents both sex and gender identity. It does not require medical documentation, and will be available to any citizen who wishes to opt out of binary sex/gender classifications. On September 26, 2016, intersex California resident Sara Kelly Keenan became the second person in the United States to legally change her gender to non-binary.[43]In December 2016, Keenan received a birth certificate with an 'Intersex' sex marker from New York City. Press coverage also disclosed that Ohio issued a birth certificate with a sex marker of 'hermaphrodite' in 2012.[44][35]

The intersex movement supports voluntary and opt-in non-binary and multiple sex classifications, described in the statement of the ThirdInternational Intersex Forum.TheOpen Society Foundationspublished a report,License to Be Yourselfin May 2014, documenting "some of the world's most progressive and rights-based laws and policies" enabling changes to gender markers on official documents.[45]The report comments on the recognition of third classifications, stating:

From a rights-based perspective, third sex / gender options should be voluntary... Those identifying as a third sex / gender should have the same rights as those identifying as male or female.[45]

The Council of Europe acknowledged concerns about recognition of third and blank classifications in a 2015 Issue Paper, stating that these may lead to "forced outings" and "lead to an increase in pressure on parents of intersex children to decide in favour of one sex."[3]The Issue Paper argues that "further reflection on non-binary legal identification is necessary":

Mauro Cabral,Global Action for Trans Equality(GATE) Co-Director, indicated that any recognition outside the "F" / "M" dichotomy needs to be adequately planned and executed with a human rights point of view, noting that: "People tend to identify a third sex with freedom from the gender binary, but that is not necessarily the case. If only trans and/or intersex people can access that third category, or if they are compulsively assigned a third sex, then the gender binary gets stronger, not weaker"[3]

The Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions recognised the right of individuals to non-binary or third sex classifications, but stated that, "creating a third, separate category for the registration of people born with an intersex trait... would risk segregating and potentially stigmatising intersex people. It would also remove their right to determine their own sex or gender."[2]

In March 2017, anAustralianandNew Zealandcommunity statement called for an end to legal classification of sex, stating that legal third classifications, like binary classifications, were based onstructural violenceand failed to respect diversity and a "right to self-determination".[46][47]

Ending official classification by sex or gender

[edit]

The statement of the ThirdInternational Intersex Forumcalls for an end to official classification by sex or gender on identification documents.Dan Christian GhattasofOII Europestates that, "providing the options for all parents to leave the sex/ gender entry open for their child would promote the equality of all sexes and genders".[23]Laura Inter ofMexicanintersex organizationBrújula Intersexual,imagines a society where sex or gender classifications are removed from birth certificates and other official identification documents,[48]andMorgan CarpenterofOII Australiastates that, "the removal of sex and gender, like race and religion, from official documentation" is "a more universal, long-term policy goal".[22]

In March 2017, an Australian and New Zealand community statement called for an end to legal classification of sex, stating that legal third classifications, like binary classifications, were based on structural violence and failed to respect diversity and a "right to self-determination". It also called for the criminalization of deferrableintersex medical interventions.[46][47]

Sex and gender distinctions

[edit]
Main article:Sex and gender distinction

Distinctions between sex and gender are lost in many official or legal documents,[49]and also online. In 2014, Facebook introduced dozens of options for users to specify their gender, including the option of intersex.[50]

Malta declaration

[edit]
Participants at the thirdInternational Intersex Forum,Malta, in December 2013
Main articles:Malta declaration (International Intersex Forum)andInternational Intersex Forum

TheMalta declarationby the Third International Intersex Forum, in 2013, called for infants and children to be assigned male or female, on the understanding that later identification may differ:

  • To register intersex children as females or males, with the awareness that, like all people, they may grow up to identify with a different sex or gender.
  • To ensure that sex or gender classifications are amendable through a simple administrative procedure at the request of the individuals concerned. All adults and capable minors should be able to choose between female (F), male (M), non-binary or multiple options. In the future, as with race or religion, sex or gender should not be a category on birth certificates or identification documents for anybody. (ThirdInternational Intersex Forum)[2]

Recognition and rights by continent and jurisdiction

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This section istranscludedfromIntersex human rights.(edit|history)


Africa

[edit]
Country/jurisdiction Physical integrity and bodily autonomy Anti-discrimination protection Access to identification documents Access to same rights as other men and women Changing M/F identification documents Third gender or sex classifications Ending official classification by sex or gender Sex and gender distinctions Assign infants and children to male or female
KenyaKenya Since 2022Yes[51][52] No Yes[4] Since 2022Yes[53]
South AfricaSouth Africa No[54][55] Yes[56] Yes Yes[57] YesSubject to medical and social reports
UgandaUganda No[58][59] No Yes[60]

Americas

[edit]
Country/jurisdiction Physical integrity and bodily autonomy Anti-discrimination protection Access to identification documents Access to same rights as other men and women Changing M/F identification documents Third gender or sex classifications Ending official classification by sex or gender Sex and gender distinctions Assign infants and children to male or female
ArgentinaArgentina No[61] No YesSelf-determination[62] YesSince July 2021, gender X became available and implemented[63]
CanadaCanada No[64] No Yes YesSelf-determination Yes
ChileChile Yes[65][66] Yes[67][68][69] Yes YesSelf-determination[70] Yes[70]
ColombiaColombia NoNo, but restricted in children aged over 5. No YesSelf-determination
MexicoMexico No[71][72][73] No[72] YesSince May 2023, a gender X option formally became available onPassportswithin Mexico - alongside male and female options.[74][75]
United StatesUnited States No[76] Partial, in healthcare[77] NoLaws onfemale genital mutilationnot enforced[76] Yes/NoOpt in only for Washington D.C., California, New York City, Ohio (with a court order only), New Mexico,[78]Nevada,[79]Oregon, Utah (with a court order only),[80]Washington State, New Jersey,[81]Colorado, and Michigan.[82][83][43][35]In October 2021, the very first US Passport with a gender X was issued by a court order for an individual. From April-11-2022, gender X becomes officially available and recognised for any validly issuedUS Passportholder.[84][85][86]
UruguayUruguay Yes[87][88] YesSelf-determination Yes[89]

Asia

[edit]
Country/jurisdiction Physical integrity and bodily autonomy Anti-discrimination protection Access to identification documents Access to same rights as other men and women Changing M/F identification documents Third gender or sex classifications Ending official classification by sex or gender Sex and gender distinctions Assign infants and children to male or female
BangladeshBangladesh No No [90][citation needed] Yes[90][citation needed]
ChinaChina No[91][92] No[93]
IndiaIndia No No Yes[94] Yes[94]
JapanJapan No No WarningRequires surgery[2]
NepalNepal No No Yes[95][96] Yes[95]
PakistanPakistan No Yes[97] YesSelf-determination[97] Yes[97]
South KoreaSouth Korea No No Yes[citation needed]
ThailandThailand No No WarningRequires surgery[2]
VietnamVietnam No No WarningRequires surgery[2]

Europe

[edit]
Country/jurisdiction Physical integrity and bodily autonomy Anti-discrimination protection Access to identification documents Access to same rights as other men and women Changing M/F identification documents Third gender or sex classifications Ending official classification by sex or gender Sex and gender distinctions Assign infants and children to male or female
AlbaniaAlbania Yes[98] Yes[99]
AustriaAustria Yes[100]
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina No Yes[101]
BelgiumBelgium YesSelf-determination[102][103]
DenmarkDenmark No[104][105] No YesSelf-determination[31] No
FinlandFinland No Yes[106] No
FranceFrance No[107][108] No No
GermanyGermany Yeswith exceptions[109][110][111] No Yes[112]
GreeceGreece No Yes[113]
IcelandIceland No Yes[114][115][116] YesSelf-determination[114][115][116] Yes[114][115][116]
Republic of IrelandIreland No[117][118] No YesSelf-determination[31] No
JerseyJersey No Yes[119]
LuxembourgLuxembourg Yes[120]
MaltaMalta YesLegislated[citation needed] Yes[121] Yes Yes YesSelf-determination[31] Yes[122]
MontenegroMontenegro No Yes[123] No No No No No No No
NetherlandsNetherlands Yes
NorwayNorway No[124] YesSelf-determination[125][126][127]
PortugalPortugal NoLegislated[128][129] Yes Yes Yes YesSelf-determination[128][129] Yes
SerbiaSerbia No Yes[130]
SwitzerlandSwitzerland No[131][132][133][134] No YesSelf-determination[135] No
United KingdomUnited Kingdom No[136][137] No NoRequires diagnosis ofgender dysphoria[32] No

Oceania

[edit]
Country/jurisdiction Physical integrity and bodily autonomy Anti-discrimination protection Access to identification documents Access to same rights as other men and women Changing M/F identification documents Third gender or sex classifications Ending official classification by sex or gender Sex and gender distinctions Assign infants and children to male or female
AustraliaAustralia No[46][138] YesAt federal level[139] NoExemptions regarding sport and female genital mutilation[139] YesPolicies vary depending on jurisdiction[140]WarningRequiressexual reassignment surgeryand permission from at least 2medical practitionerswithin both NSW and QLD only. Appropriate clinical treatment (or just 1 doctors permission) within WA, SA, NT and the ACT. "Self-determination" within TAS and VIC.[141] Yes(Passports)YesOpt in at federal level, state/territory policies vary[140][49]
New ZealandNew Zealand No[46][142] No NoExemptions regarding female genital mutilation[2] YesFrom July 2023, by self-determination[143] Yes(Passports)Warning(Third birth certificate may be used if determined at birth[144])


See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex"(PDF).United NationsOffice of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.2015.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 March 2016.Retrieved28 March2016.
  2. ^abcdefghijklmnoPromoting and Protecting Human Rights in relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Sex Characteristics.Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions.June 2016.ISBN978-0-9942513-7-4.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-01-15.
  3. ^abcdefHuman rights and intersex people, Issue Paper,Council of Europe, April 2015
  4. ^abcd"Kenya takes step toward recognizing intersex people in landmark ruling".Reuters.2014-12-05.
  5. ^abcJones, Tiffany; Hart, Bonnie; Carpenter, Morgan; Ansara, Gavi; Leonard, William; Lucke, Jayne (February 2016).Intersex: Stories and Statistics from Australia(PDF).Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.ISBN978-1-78374-208-0.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-09-14.Retrieved2016-02-02.
  6. ^Lynn E. Roller, "The Ideology of the Eunuch Priest,"Gender & History9.3 (1997), p. 558.
  7. ^Decretum Gratiani,C. 4, q. 2 et 3, c. 3
  8. ^"Decretum Gratiani (Kirchenrechtssammlung)".Bayerische StaatsBibliothek (Bavarian State Library).February 5, 2009.Archivedfrom the original on December 20, 2016.
  9. ^Raming, Ida; Macy, Gary; Bernard J, Cook (2004).A History of Women and Ordination.Scarecrow Press.p. 113.
  10. ^E Coke, The First Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England, Institutes 8.a. (1st Am. Ed. 1812) (16th European ed. 1812).
  11. ^Greenberg, Julie (1999). "Defining Male and Female: Intersexuality and the Collision Between Law and Biology".Arizona Law Review.41:277–278.SSRN896307.
  12. ^abHolmes, Morgan(July 2004)."Locating Third Sexes".Transformations Journal(8).ISSN1444-3775.Archived fromthe originalon 2007-06-26.Retrieved2014-12-28.
  13. ^Zderic, Stephen (2002).Pediatric gender assignment: a critical reappraisal; [proceedings from a conference... in Dallas in the spring of 1999 which was entitled "pediatric gender assignment - a critical reappraisal" ].New York, NY [u.a.]: Kluwer Acad. / Plenum Publ.ISBN978-0306467592.
  14. ^abGhattas, Dan Christian(September 2013)."Human Rights Between the Sexes"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2015-09-23.
  15. ^"A preliminary study on the life situations of inter* individuals".OII Europe.4 November 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 4 July 2015.
  16. ^Money, John;Ehrhardt, Anke A. (1972).Man & Woman Boy & Girl. Differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity.USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-8018-1405-1.
  17. ^Domurat Dreger, Alice (2001).Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex.USA: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-00189-3.
  18. ^Marañón, Gregorio (1929).Los estados intersexuales en la especie humana.Madrid: Morata.
  19. ^Furtado, P. S.; et al. (2012). "Gender dysphoria associated with disorders of sex development".Nat. Rev. Urol.9(11): 620–627.doi:10.1038/nrurol.2012.182.PMID23045263.S2CID22294512.
  20. ^Demographics,Organisation Intersex International Australia, July 28, 2016,archivedfrom the original on October 1, 2016,retrieved2016-09-30
  21. ^Diamond, Milton(1997). "Sexual Identity and Sexual Orientation in Children with Traumatized or Ambiguous Genitalia".The Journal of Sex Research.34(2): 199–211.doi:10.1080/00224499709551885.JSTOR3813570.
  22. ^abCarpenter, Morgan(May 2016)."The human rights of intersex people: addressing harmful practices and rhetoric of change".Reproductive Health Matters.24(47): 74–84.doi:10.1016/j.rhm.2016.06.003.ISSN0968-8080.PMID27578341.
  23. ^abGhattas, Dan Christian(2016)."Standing up for the human rights of intersex people – how can you help?"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2016-03-27.
  24. ^Viloria, Hida (November 6, 2013)."Op-ed: Germany's Third-Gender Law Fails on Equality".The Advocate.Archivedfrom the original on January 3, 2017.
  25. ^ab"NGO Report to the 6th and 7th Periodic Report of Argentina on the Convention Against Torture (CAT)"(PDF).Buenos Aires: Justicia Intersex. March 2017.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2018-01-04.
  26. ^Baseline Survey on Intersex Realities in East Africa - Specific Focus on Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda,Support Initiative for Persons with Congenital Disorders, 2016
  27. ^R. Peel,"Eve’s Rib - Searching for the Biological Roots of Sex Differences",Crown Publishers,New York City,1994,ISBN0-517-59298-3[page needed]
  28. ^Jordan-Young, R. M.;Sonksen, P. H.;Karkazis, K.(April 2014). "Sex, health, and athletes".BMJ.348(apr28 9): –2926–g2926.doi:10.1136/bmj.g2926.ISSN1756-1833.PMID24776640.S2CID2198650.
  29. ^Martínez-Patiño, Maria José(December 2005)."Personal Account: A woman Tried and Tested".The Lancet.366:366–538.doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)67841-5.PMID16360746.S2CID8742433.
  30. ^abPūras, Dainius (April 4, 2016),Sport and healthy lifestyles and the right to health. Report A/HRC/32/33,United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health,archivedfrom the original on December 15, 2016
  31. ^abcdMcDonald, Henry; Others (July 16, 2015)."Ireland passes law allowing trans people to choose their legal gender".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2015.Retrieved13 November2015.
  32. ^abPayton, Naith (July 23, 2015)."Comment: Why the UK's gender recognition laws desperately need updating".The Pink Paper.Archivedfrom the original on January 26, 2017.RetrievedMay 15,2017.
  33. ^Holme, Ingrid (2008). "Hearing People's Own Stories".Science as Culture.17(3): 341–344.doi:10.1080/09505430802280784.S2CID143528047.
  34. ^"New Zealand Passports - Information about Changing Sex / Gender Identity".Archivedfrom the original on 23 September 2014.Retrieved6 October2014.
  35. ^abcO'Hara, Mary Emily (December 29, 2016)."Nation's First Known Intersex Birth Certificate Issued in NYC".NBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-05-09.Retrieved2016-12-30.
  36. ^"Third sex option on birth certificates".Deutsche Welle.1 November 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 10 October 2014.
  37. ^"Third Gender: A Step Toward Ending Intersex Discrimination".Der Spiegel.22 August 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 4 June 2016.
  38. ^"Intersex: Third Gender in Germany" (Spiegel, Huff Post, Guardian,...): Silly Season Fantasies vs. Reality of Genital Mutilations ".Zwischengeschlecht.1 November 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2017.
  39. ^"Sham package for Intersex: Leaving sex entry open is not an option".OII Europe.15 February 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2014.
  40. ^Lavers, Michael (November 23, 2016)."Judge rules in favor of intersex passport applicant".Washington Blade.Archivedfrom the original on February 2, 2017.
  41. ^"Legal Documents".Lambda Legal.Archivedfrom the original on 2017-02-02.Retrieved2017-01-30.
  42. ^abO'Hara, Mary Emily (September 26, 2016)."Californian Becomes Second US Citizen Granted 'Non-Binary' Gender Status".NBC News.Archivedfrom the original on September 26, 2016.RetrievedSeptember 26,2016.
  43. ^"First Ever Intersex Birth Certificate Issued In America | Very Real".Oxygen. 2016-12-30. Archived fromthe originalon 2017-01-05.Retrieved2017-01-04.
  44. ^abByrne, Jack (2014).License to Be Yourself.New York:Open Society Foundations.ISBN9781940983103.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-01-08.Retrieved2014-12-28.
  45. ^abcdAndrogen Insensitivity Support Syndrome Support Group Australia;Intersex Trust Aotearoa New Zealand;Organisation Intersex International Australia;Black, Eve; Bond, Kylie;Briffa, Tony;Carpenter, Morgan;Cody, Candice; David, Alex; Driver, Betsy; Hannaford, Carolyn; Harlow, Eileen;Hart, Bonnie;Hart, Phoebe;Leckey, Delia; Lum, Steph;Mitchell, Mani Bruce;Nyhuis, Elise; O'Callaghan, Bronwyn; Perrin, Sandra; Smith, Cody; Williams, Trace; Yang, Imogen; Yovanovic, Georgie (March 2017),Darlington Statement,archived fromthe originalon 2017-03-22,retrievedMarch 21,2017
  46. ^abCopland, Simon (March 20, 2017)."Intersex people have called for action. It's time to listen".Special Broadcasting Service.Archivedfrom the original on March 22, 2017.Retrieved2017-03-21.
  47. ^Inter, Laura (October 3, 2016)."The situation of the intersex community in Mexico".Intersex Day.Archivedfrom the original on May 23, 2017.Retrieved2017-05-19.
  48. ^ab"Australian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender, 30 May 2013".Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2015.Retrieved6 October2014.
  49. ^"Here's a list of 58 gender options for Facebook users".ABC.February 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-08-27.
  50. ^Kisika, Sam (8 August 2022)."Landmark Kenya intersex rights law takes effect".Los Angeles Blade: LGBTQ News, Rights, Politics, Entertainment.Retrieved21 August2022.
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