Leonese language

Leonese
Leonese
Llionés
Native to	Spain,Portugal
Region	Provinces ofLeón(north and west),Zamora(north-west) inCastilla y León,inSpain,and the towns of Rionor and Guadramil in northeastern Portugal.
Ethnicity	Leonese
Native speakers	20,000–50,000 (2008)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Latin Romance Italo-Western Western Ibero-Romance West Iberian Asturleonese Leonese; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Early forms	Old Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-Romance Leonese Vulgar Latin Old Leonese ; ; ; ;
Official status
Official language in	As of 2010, has special status in theSpanishautonomous communityofCastile and León
Language codes
ISO 639-2	ast
ISO 639-3	ast
Glottolog	leon1250
Linguasphere	51-AAA-cc
IETF	ast-u-sd-escl
	Astur-Leonese is classified as Definitely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger
	This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

A LeonesespeakerfromPeñapardainEl Rebollar,recorded inSalamanca,Spain

Leonese(Leonese:llionés,Asturian:lleonés) is a set of vernacularRomance language varietiescurrently spoken in northern and western portions of thehistorical regionofLeóninSpain(the modern provinces ofLeón,Zamora,andSalamanca), the village of Riudenore (in bothSpainandPortugal) and Guadramil inPortugal,sometimes considered another language. In the past, it was spoken in a wider area, including most of the historical region of Leon. The current number of Leonese speakers is estimated at 20,000 to 50,000.^[6]^[7]^[8]Spanishis now the predominant language in the area.

Leonese forms part of theAsturleoneselinguistic group along with dialects ofAsturian.The division between Asturian and Leonese is extra-linguistic, as the main divisions within the Asturleonese complex are between eastern and western varieties, rather than between varieties spoken inAsturiasand Leon.

Name

Menéndez Pidal used "Leonese" for the entire linguistic area, including Asturias. This designation has been replaced by Ibero-Romance scholars with "Asturian-Leonese", but "Leonese" is still often used to denote Asturian-Leonese by non-speakers of Asturian or Mirandese.^[4]^[9]Sometimes the language as a whole is simply called "Asturian" for several reasons, such as the Leonese dialects being on the brink of extinction, or the widespread ignorance of its very existence (even in León), as well as their lack of recognition and institutional support (as opposed to their Asturias counterparts).

Leonese and Asturleonese

In a narrow geographical sense, Leonese is distinct from the dialects grouped under theAsturian language.^[10]However, the division between Leonese and Asturian is due to the distinctly different identities of both areas, separated by a mighty mountain range, while the dialects have enough common traits to consider them part of a single language,Astur-Leoneseor Asturian-Leonese.^[11]The principleisoglossesin this region do not divide Asturias and Leon, dialectal areas (western, central, eastern) are in fact shaped along a north-south axis (thus encompassing lands both north and south of themountains,both inAsturiasand inCastile and León).^[11]In the west of Asturias and Leon, dialects of Asturo-Leonese begin totransitioninto the closely relatedGalician language,with the westernmost variants effectively constituting dialects of Galician.^[11]

On the other hand,Menéndez Pidaland fellow scholars^[12]discussed a "Leonese language" descending fromLatinand encompassing two groups: the Asturian dialects on one hand, and dialects spoken in the provinces of León and Zamora in Spain and a related dialect inTrás-os-Montes(Portugal), on the other hand.^[10]^[13]^[4]

The Asturleonese dialect (considered part of the Leonese dialects) ofMiranda do Douro(Portugal),Mirandese,is most certainly a dialect on its own, considering the numerous differences it has when compared to dialects in the Spanish side. In fact, it is often considered as a separate language, especially inPortugal,where it has been granted official recognition,^[14]and is regulated by theInstitute of the Mirandese Language.Thus, Asturleonese is sometimes considered a group of two languages,AsturianorAsturleoneseproper,andMirandese.

UnlikeAsturian,which is regulated by theAcademy of the Asturian Language(ALLA) and promoted by theAsturian Governmentand local legislation, the Leonese dialects are not officially promoted or regulated.

Linguistic description

Phonology

In Leonese, any of fivevowelphonemes,/a,e,i,o,u/,may occur in stressed position. In the unstressed positions, the distinction between close and mid vowels is neutralized in favor of thearchiphonemes/ɪ/and/ʊ/.^[15]

Grammar

Leonese has twogenders(masculine and feminine) and twonumbers(singular andplural). The main masculine noun and adjective endings are-ufor singular and-osfor plural. Typical feminine endings are-afor singular and-asfor plural. Masculine and feminine nouns ending in-ein the singular take-esfor the plural.

Adjectives

Adjectivesagreewith nouns in number and gender.

Comparative table

Evolution from Latin to Galician, Portuguese, Astur-Leonese, and Castilian
Gloss	Latin	Galician	Portuguese	Astur-Leonese	Spanish
Gloss	Diphthongization of ŏ and ĕ
door	pŏrta(m)	porta	porta	puerta	puerta
eye	ŏc(u)lu(m)	ollo	olho	güeyu güechu	ojo
time	tĕmpu(m)	tempo	tempo	tiempu	tiempo
land	tĕrra(m)	terra	terra	tierra	tierra
	Initial f-
make	facere	facer	fazer	facer	hacer
iron	ferru(m)	ferro	ferro	fierru	hierro
	Initial l-
fireplace	lare(m)	lar	lar	llar ḷḷar	lar
wolf	lupu(m)	lobo	lobo	llobu ḷḷobu	lobo
	Initial n-
Christmas	natal(is) nativitate(m)	nadal	natal	ñavidá	navidad
	Initial pl-, cl-, fl-
flat	planu(m)	chan chao	plano	chanu llanu	llano
key	clave(m)	chave	chave	chave llave	llave
flame	flamma(m)	chama	chama	chama llama	llama
	Falling diphthongs
thing	causa(m)	cousa	cousa coisa	co(u)sa	cosa
blacksmith	ferrariu(m)	ferreiro	ferreiro	ferre(i)ru	herrero
	-ct- and -lt-
made	factu(m)	feito	feito	feitu fechu	hecho
night	nocte(m)	noite	noite	nueite nueche	noche
much	multu(m)	moito muito	muito	muitu mueitu muchu	mucho
listen	auscultare	escoitar escuitar	escuitar(archaic) escutar	escuitare escueitare escuchar	escuchar
	mn
man	hom(i)ne(m)	home	homem	home	hombre
hunger, famine	fam(i)ne(m)	fame	fome	fame	hambre
fire	lum(i)ne(m)	lume	lume	llume ḷḷume	lumbre
	Intervocalic -l-
ice / frost	gelu(m) gelare	xeo	gelo	xelu	hielo
fern	filictu(m)	fieito, fento	feto	feleitu feichu	helecho
	-ll-
castle	castellu(m)	castelo	castelo	castiellu castieḷḷu	castillo
	Intervocalic -n-
frog	rana(m)	ra(n)	rã	rana	rana
	-lj-
woman	muliere(m)	muller	mulher	muyer mucher	mujer
	c’l, t’l, g’l
razor	novac(u)la(m)	navalla	navalha	ñavaya	navaja
old	vet(u)lu(m)	vello	velho	vieyu viechu	viejo
tile	teg(u)la(m)	tella	telha	teya	teja

Historical, social and cultural aspects

History

The native languages of Leon, Zamora, Asturias, and the Terra de Miranda in Portugal are the result of the evolution of Latin introduced byRomanconquerors in the region. Their colonization and organization led to theConventus Asturum,with its capital atAsturica Augusta(present-dayAstorga, Spain,the centre ofRomanizationfor the indigenous tribes).^[16]

The city of Astorga was sacked by theVisigothsin the 5th century, and never regained its former prominence. The region remained unified until the eighth-century Islamic invasion. Around the 11th century, it began to be defined as Leonese territory roughly corresponding to the southernconventus.In medieval León, the RomanceGalician,Asturian-Leonese,andCastilianlanguages evolved and spread south.

The first known text in Asturian-Leonese is theNodicia de kesos,written between 974 and 980 AD, an inventory of cheeses owned by a monastery written in the margin of the reverse of a document written in Latin.^[17]During the 12th and 13th centuries, Leonese reached its territorial zenith as the administrative language of theKingdom of León,a literary language (Poema de Elena y María[es]^[18]and theLibro de Alexandre),^[19]^{[failed verification]}in the Leonese court, judiciary (with the translation of the VisigothicLiber IudicumorLiber Iudicioruminto Leonese),^{[citation needed]}^{[dubious–discuss]}administration, and organization.^[20]^{[failed verification]}

After the 1230 union of Leon and Castile, Leonese had greater written and institutional use,^{[citation needed]}although at the end of the 13th century Castilian began to replace it as a written language.^[21]^{[full citation needed]}Leonese became an oral, rural language with little literary development.

At the beginning of the 20th century, it survived in oral form only in mid-westernLeónand westernZamoraprovinces. Its scientific study and a nascent cultural movement began in the province of Leon in 1906. During the 1950s and 60s, the number of Leonese speakers and the area in which it was spoken decreased.

Use and distribution

Although the Astur-Leonese linguistic domain covers most of the principality of Asturias, the north and west of the province of Leon, the northeast of Zamora, both provinces in Castile and León, and the region of Miranda do Douro in the east of the Portuguese district ofBragança,this article focuses on the autonomous community of Castile and León. Borrego Nieto wrote that the area in where Leonese is best preserved, defined as "area 1", consists of the regions ofBabiaandLaciana,part of LosArgüellos,easternBierzoandLa Cabrera;in Zamora, non-GalicianSanabria.^[3]

Borrego Nieto describes another geographical circle, which he calls "area 2", where Leonese is fading: "... It is extended to the regions between the interior area and the Ribera delÓrbigo(Maragatería,Cepeda,Omaña... ). In Zamora, the region ofLa Carballeda– with the subregionLa Requejada– andAliste,with at least a part of its adjacent lands (Alba[es]andTábara). This area is characterized by a blur and progressive disappearance, greater as we move to the East, of the features still clearly seen in the previous area. The gradual and negative character of this characteristic explains how vague the limits are ".^{[full citation needed]}

Number of speakers

A "speaker of Leonese" is defined here as a person who knows (and can speak) a variety of Leonese. There is no linguistic census of the number of Leonese speakers in the provinces of León and Zamora, and estimates vary from 5,000 to 50,000.

Number of speakers, according to studies
Sociolinguistic study	Number of speakers
II Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa^[6]	50,000
Facendera pola Llenguanewsletter^[22]	25,000
El asturiano-leonés: aspectos lingüísticos, sociolingüísticos y legislación^[23]	20,000 to 25,000
Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego.^[24]	2,500 to 4,000 (El Bierzo,Ribas de Sil[es],Fornela[es],andLa Cabrera)

Studies

See caption — 2009 linguistic map of Zamora and León

Two sociolinguistic studies, in northern Leon and the entire province^[25]^[6]analysed the prevalence of Leonese and the linguistic attitudes of its speakers. According to the latter, maintenance of the language is the primary wish but opinions differ about how to do so. Almost 37 per cent think that the language should be kept for nonofficial uses, and about 30 per cent believe it should be on a par with Spanish. Twenty-two per cent favour its disappearance. Nearly the population supports granting official status to Leonese by amending the Statute of Autonomy. About 70 per cent favour linguistic coordination between León and Asturias, with 20 per cent opposing. Leonese in education is favoured by more than 63 per cent of the population, and opposed by about 34 per cent. Institutional promotion of the dialect, especially by town councils, was favoured by more than 83 per cent of respondents.

Recognition

The Statute of Autonomy of Castile and León, amended 30 November 2007, addresses the status of Spanish, Leonese, and Galician. According to Section 5.2, "Leonese will be specifically protected by the institutions for its particular value within the linguistic patrimony of the Community. Its protection, usage and promotion will be regulated".

On 24 February 2010, a parliamentary group from theSpanish Socialist Workers' Partypresented a proposition to the Cortes of Castile and León to recognize the value of Leonese and implement a plan to protect and promote it. Although the proposition was approved unanimously by the plenary session of the parliament of Castile and León on 26 May, the government's position has not changed.

Vitality

UNESCO,in itsAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger,listed Leonese in the most at-risk category.^{[citation needed]}The category's criteria are:

unofficial
without legitimized significant use in the news media
low levels of proficiency and use
poor social prestige
not used as a medium of primary education
not used in official toponyms

Standardization

The Autonomous Community of Castile and León lacks a government agency to promote minority languages and a nongovernmental agency in an advisory capacity in matters pertaining to minority languages. The Academy of the Asturian Language has sponsored linguistic and sociolinguistic research, which encompasses the non-Asturian dialects of Asturian-Leonese. Two congresses about Leonese have been held, at which the following measures were proposed to move towards language standardization:

Based on articles 5.2 and 5.3 of the Statute of Autonomy,^[26]raise the legal status of Leonese to equal that of Galician.
Create an autonomous administrative organ under the Department of Culture and Tourism responsible for protecting and promoting Leonese and Galician.
Introduce Leonese into adult and childhood education.
Recover native toponymy with bilingual signage.
Support cultural and literary Leonese and its publications and collaborate with associations which base their work on the recovery of Leonese, encourage Leonese in social media, and promote literary contests in the dialect.
Promote study of Leonese through the universities and centres of study and investigation such as the Institute of Studies in Zamora, the Cultural Institute in Leon, the Institute of Studies of El Bierzo and the Marcelo Macías Institute of Studies in Astorga.
Coordinate and cooperate with linguistic institutions, study centres, and administrations in the rest of the Asturialeonese linguistic area.
Require local governments to assume responsibility for the recovery of Leonese.

Promotion

For about 15 years cultural associations have offered Leonese-language courses, sometimes with the support of local administrations in the provinces of Leon and Zamora. In 2001, theUniversidad de León(University of León) created a course for teachers of Leonese. The dialect can be studied in the larger villages ofLeón,ZamoraandSalamancaprovinces asEl Fueyucourses, following an agreement between the Leonese provincial government and the organization. The Leonese Language Teachers and Monitors Association (Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa) was created in 2008 to promote Leonese-language activities.

Literature

Leonese literature includes:

Benigno Suárez Ramos,El tío perruca,1976.ISBN 978-84-400-1451-1.
Cayetano Álvarez Bardón,Cuentos en dialecto leonés,1981.ISBN 978-84-391-4102-0.
Xuan Bello,Nel cuartu mariellu,1982.ISBN 978-84-300-6521-9.
Miguel Rojo,Telva ya los osos,1994.ISBN 978-84-8053-040-8.
Manuel García Menéndez,Corcuspin el Rozcayeiru,1984.ISBN 978-84-600-3676-0.
Manuel García Menéndez,Delina nel valle'l Faloupu,1985.ISBN 978-84-600-4133-7.
Eva González Fernández,Poesía completa: 1980–1991,1991.ISBN 978-84-86936-58-7.
Cuentos de Lleón: Antoloxía d'escritores lleoneses de güei,1996.ISBN 84-87562-12-4.
Roberto González-Quevedo,L.lume de l.luz,2002.ISBN 978-84-8168-323-3.
Roberto González-Quevedo,Pol sendeiru la nueite,2002.ISBN 978-84-95640-37-6.
Roberto González-Quevedo,Pan d'amore: antoloxía poética 1980–2003,2004.ISBN 978-84-95640-95-6.
Roberto González-Quevedo,El Sil que baxaba de la nieve,2007.ISBN 978-84-96413-31-3.
Emilce Núñez Álvarez,Atsegrías ya tristuras,2005.ISBN 978-84-8177-093-3.
Luis Cortés Vázquez,Leyendas, cuentos y romances de Sanabria,2003.ISBN 978-84-95195-55-5.
Ramón Menéndez Pidal,El dialecto leonés(Commemorative edition with stories and poems in Leonese), 2006.ISBN 978-84-933781-6-5.
Cuentos populares leoneses (escritos por niños),2006.ISBN 978-84-611-0795-7.
Nicolás Bartolomé Pérez,Filandón: lliteratura popular llionesa,2007.ISBN 978-84-933380-7-7.
José Aragón y Escacena,Entre brumas,1921.ISBN 978-84-8012-569-7.
Francisco Javier Pozuelo Alegre,Poemas pa nun ser lleídos,2008.ISBN 978-84-612-4484-3.
Xosepe Vega Rodríguez,Epífora y outros rellatos,2008.ISBN 978-84-612-5315-9.
Xosepe Vega Rodríguez,Breve hestoria d'un gamusinu,2008.ISBN 978-84-612-5316-6.
Antoine De Saint-Exupéry,El Prencipicu(Translation ofThe Little Prince), 2009.ISBN 978-84-96872-03-5.
Ramón Rei Rodríguez,El ñegru amor,2009.ISBN 978-84-613-1824-7.
Juan Andrés Oria de Rueda Salguero,Llogas carbayesas,2009.ISBN 978-84-613-1822-3.

References

^Herrero Ingelmo, José Luis (March 2006)."El leonés en Salamanca cien años después"[Ramón Menéndez Pidal andThe Leonese dialect](PDF).In Morala Rodríguez, José Ramón (ed.).Ramón Menéndez Pidal yEl dialecto leonés(1906–2006).Ramón Menéndez Pidal yEl dialecto leonés.Beltenebros (in Spanish). León, Spain: Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua. pp. 207–235.ISBN 978-84-935774-5-2.
^Llorente Maldonado de Guevara, Antonio (1986). "Las hablas vivas de Zamora y Salamanca en la actualidad". InAlvar López, Manuel(ed.).Lenguas peninsulares y proyección hispánica(in Spanish). Madrid:Fundación Friedrich Ebert;Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. pp. 107–131.ISBN 9788439872092.
^^a ^bBorrego Nieto, Julio (1996). "Leonés". In Alvar López, Manuel (ed.).Manual de dialectología hispánica: el español de España.Barcelona, Spain: Editorial Ariel. pp. 139–158.ISBN 978-84-344-8217-3.
^^a ^b ^cMenéndez Pidal 1906.
^Segura da Cruz, Luísa; Saramago, João; Vitorino, Gabriela (September 1993). "Os dialectos leoneses em território português: coesão e diversidade".Variação Linguística no Espaço, no Tempo e na Sociedade.Encontro Regional da Associação Portuguesa de Linguística. Miranda do Douro: Associação Portuguesa de Linguística. pp. 281–293.
^^a ^b ^c ^dGonzález Riaño & García Arias 2008.
^^a ^bSánchez Prieto, Raúl (2008)."La elaboración y aceptación de una norma lingüística en comunidades dialectalmente divididas: el caso del leonés y del frisio del norte"(PDF).In Sánchez Prieto, Raúl; Veith, Daniel; Martínez Areta, Mikel (eds.).Mikroglottika Yearbook 2008(in Spanish). Vol. 1. Peter Lang. pp. 145–153.hdl:10366/19373.ISBN 978-3-631-58027-1.
^García Gil 2008,p. 12.
^Morala Rodríguez 2009.
^^a ^bKrüger, Fritz (2006) [1914]. González Ferrero, Juan Carlos (ed.).Estudio fonético-histórico de los dialectos españoles occidentales(in Spanish). Translated by Sánchez Nieto, M.ª Teresa; González Martínez, María. Zamora, Spain: Instituto de Estudios Zamoranos "Florián de Ocampo". p. 13.ISBN 84-96100-13-8.
^^a ^b ^cAgard, Frederick B. (1990). "The Place Of Aragonese And Asturo-leonese In Iberian Romance". In Garza Cuarón, Beatriz; Levy Podolsky, Paulette (eds.).Homenaje a Jorge A. Suárez: lingüística indoamericana e hispánica.El Colegio de México. pp. 69–84.Retrieved10 May2024.
^García Gil 2008,p. 10.
^Marcos de Dios, Ángel; Serra, Pedro (1999).Historia de la literatura portuguesa(in Spanish). Salamanca, Spain: Luso-Española de Ediciones. p. 9.ISBN 84-930359-4-7.
^Lei n.º 7/99, de 29 de Janeiro(in Portuguese) – via diariodarepublica.pt
^Pardo Fernández 2008.
^Santos Yanguas, Juan (1985).Comunidades indígenas y administración romana en el Noroeste hispánico.Leioa, Spain: Universidad del País Vasco.ISBN 978-84-7585-019-1.
^Fernández Catón, José M.ª (2004). "La" Nodicia de Kesos "y los problemas de la documentación del siglo X sobre el origen de los monasterios independientes de Rozuela y Cillanueva".Orígenes de las lenguas romances en el Reino de León: siglos IX-XII(in Spanish). Vol. 1. León, Spain: Centro de Estudios e Investigación "San Isidoro". pp. 35–86.ISBN 84-87667-65-1.
^Menéndez Pidal, Ramón (1914). "Elena y María(Disputa del clérigo y el caballero): Poesía leonesa inédita del siglo XIII ".Revista de Filología Española(in Spanish).ISSN 0210-9174.
^Bishop, Sarah G. (1977).The Leonese features in the Madrid manuscript of the Libro de Alexandre(PDF)(PhD). Ohio State University.
^Carrasco Cantos, Pilar; Carrasco Cantos, Inés (1998).Estudio léxico-semántico de los fueros leoneses de Zamora, Salamanca, Ledesma y Alba de Tormes: Concordancias lematizadas.Publicaciones de la Cátedra de Historia de la Lengua Española. Universidad de Granada.ISBN 978-84-338-2315-1.
^Lomax, Derek W. (April 1968). "La lengua oficial de Castilla". In Rosetti, Alexandru; Reinheimer-Rîpeanu, Sanda (eds.).Actele celui de-al XII-lea congres internaţional de lingvistică şi filologie romanică.International Congress of Romance Linguistics and Philology (in Spanish). Vol. 2. Academiei Republicii Socialiste România (published 1971). pp. 411–417.
^"La" llingua "de los leoneses"(PDF).Furmientu(in Spanish).
^García Gil 2008.
^Gómez Bautista, Alberto (2006)."Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego"(PDF).Ianua: Revista Philologica Romanica(in Galician).6.Romania Minor: 15–22.ISSN 1616-413X.Retrieved25 August2022.
^González Riaño, Xosé Antón; García Arias, Xosé Lluis (2006).Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques nes fasteres que llenden con Asturies.Estaya Sociollingüística (in Asturian). Vol. 3. Oviedo, Spain: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana.
^Reforma del Estatuto de Autonomía de Castilla y León[Amendment to the Statute of Autonomy of the Castille and Leon] (Ley Orgánica 14/2007, 5) (in Spanish). Vol. 288. 1 December 2007. pp. 49486–49505 – viaBOE.

Sources

García Gil, Héctor (2008).Asturian-leonese: Linguistic, Sociolinguistic and Legal Aspects(PDF).Working Papers. Vol. 25. Translated by Jenkins, Peter David. Barcelona, Spain: Mercator Legislation; CIEMEN.ISSN 2013-102X.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 March 2014.
González Riaño, Xosé Antón; García Arias, Xosé Lluis (2008).II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu De Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques de la población lleonesa.Estaya Sociollingüística (in Asturian). Vol. 4. Oviedo, Spain: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana.ISBN 978-84-8168-448-3.
López Morales, Humberto (August 1965)."Elementos leoneses en la lengua del teatro pastoril de los siglos XV y XVI"(PDF).In Sánchez Romeralo, Jaime; Poulussen, Norbert (eds.).Actas del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Hispanistas.Congress of the International Association of Hispanists. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas (published 1967). pp. 411–419.
Morala Rodríguez, José Ramón (2009).El leonés en el siglo XXI: Un romance milenario ante el reto de su normalización.Beltenebros. Vol. 23. Burgos, Spain: Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua.ISBN 978-84-936383-8-2.
Menéndez Pidal, Ramón(1906)."El dialecto leonés"(PDF).Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos(in Spanish). No. 2–3. Cuerpo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueólogos. pp. 128–172, 294–311.ISSN 0034-771X.
Pardo Fernández, Abel (2008)."El Llïonés y las TICs"(PDF).In Sánchez Prieto, Raúl; Veith, Daniel; Martínez Areta, Mikel (eds.).Mikroglottika Yearbook 2008(in Spanish). Vol. 1. Peter Lang. pp. 55–65.ISBN 978-3-631-58027-1.Archived from the original on 20 September 2009.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
Staaff, Erik (1907).Étude sur l'ancien dialecte léonais d'après les chartes du XIIIe siècle.Uppsala, Sweden.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

Official website of Asociación L'Alderique
Leonese Council Official Website with information in Leonese
Leonese Language Association
Top Level Domain for Leonese
Asociación de Profesores y Monitores de Llingua Llïonesa
Llionpedia,an independent encyclopedia in Leonese

[1] Herrero Ingelmo, José Luis (March 2006)."El leonés en Salamanca cien años después"[Ramón Menéndez Pidal andThe Leonese dialect](PDF).In Morala Rodríguez, José Ramón (ed.).Ramón Menéndez Pidal yEl dialecto leonés(1906–2006).Ramón Menéndez Pidal yEl dialecto leonés.Beltenebros (in Spanish). León, Spain: Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua. pp. 207–235.ISBN 978-84-935774-5-2.

[2] Llorente Maldonado de Guevara, Antonio (1986). "Las hablas vivas de Zamora y Salamanca en la actualidad". InAlvar López, Manuel(ed.).Lenguas peninsulares y proyección hispánica(in Spanish). Madrid:Fundación Friedrich Ebert;Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. pp. 107–131.ISBN 9788439872092.

[BorregoNietoManual-3] Borrego Nieto, Julio (1996). "Leonés". In Alvar López, Manuel (ed.).Manual de dialectología hispánica: el español de España.Barcelona, Spain: Editorial Ariel. pp. 139–158.ISBN 978-84-344-8217-3.

[FOOTNOTEMenéndez_Pidal1906-4] Menéndez Pidal 1906.

[5] Segura da Cruz, Luísa; Saramago, João; Vitorino, Gabriela (September 1993). "Os dialectos leoneses em território português: coesão e diversidade".Variação Linguística no Espaço, no Tempo e na Sociedade.Encontro Regional da Associação Portuguesa de Linguística. Miranda do Douro: Associação Portuguesa de Linguística. pp. 281–293.

[FOOTNOTEGonzález_RiañoGarcía_Arias2008-6] González Riaño & García Arias 2008.

[RSP-7] Sánchez Prieto, Raúl (2008)."La elaboración y aceptación de una norma lingüística en comunidades dialectalmente divididas: el caso del leonés y del frisio del norte"(PDF).In Sánchez Prieto, Raúl; Veith, Daniel; Martínez Areta, Mikel (eds.).Mikroglottika Yearbook 2008(in Spanish). Vol. 1. Peter Lang. pp. 145–153.hdl:10366/19373.ISBN 978-3-631-58027-1.

[FOOTNOTEGarcía_Gil200812-8] García Gil 2008,p. 12.

[FOOTNOTEMorala_Rodríguez2009-9] Morala Rodríguez 2009.

[Krüger,_Fritz_2006-10] Krüger, Fritz (2006) [1914]. González Ferrero, Juan Carlos (ed.).Estudio fonético-histórico de los dialectos españoles occidentales(in Spanish). Translated by Sánchez Nieto, M.ª Teresa; González Martínez, María. Zamora, Spain: Instituto de Estudios Zamoranos "Florián de Ocampo". p. 13.ISBN 84-96100-13-8.

[Agard-11] Agard, Frederick B. (1990). "The Place Of Aragonese And Asturo-leonese In Iberian Romance". In Garza Cuarón, Beatriz; Levy Podolsky, Paulette (eds.).Homenaje a Jorge A. Suárez: lingüística indoamericana e hispánica.El Colegio de México. pp. 69–84.Retrieved10 May2024.

[FOOTNOTEGarcía_Gil200810-12] García Gil 2008,p. 10.

[13] Marcos de Dios, Ángel; Serra, Pedro (1999).Historia de la literatura portuguesa(in Spanish). Salamanca, Spain: Luso-Española de Ediciones. p. 9.ISBN 84-930359-4-7.

[14] Lei n.º 7/99, de 29 de Janeiro(in Portuguese) – via diariodarepublica.pt

[FOOTNOTEPardo_Fernández2008-15] Pardo Fernández 2008.

[16] Santos Yanguas, Juan (1985).Comunidades indígenas y administración romana en el Noroeste hispánico.Leioa, Spain: Universidad del País Vasco.ISBN 978-84-7585-019-1.

[17] Fernández Catón, José M.ª (2004). "La" Nodicia de Kesos "y los problemas de la documentación del siglo X sobre el origen de los monasterios independientes de Rozuela y Cillanueva".Orígenes de las lenguas romances en el Reino de León: siglos IX-XII(in Spanish). Vol. 1. León, Spain: Centro de Estudios e Investigación "San Isidoro". pp. 35–86.ISBN 84-87667-65-1.

[18] Menéndez Pidal, Ramón (1914). "Elena y María(Disputa del clérigo y el caballero): Poesía leonesa inédita del siglo XIII ".Revista de Filología Española(in Spanish).ISSN 0210-9174.

[19] Bishop, Sarah G. (1977).The Leonese features in the Madrid manuscript of the Libro de Alexandre(PDF)(PhD). Ohio State University.

[20] Carrasco Cantos, Pilar; Carrasco Cantos, Inés (1998).Estudio léxico-semántico de los fueros leoneses de Zamora, Salamanca, Ledesma y Alba de Tormes: Concordancias lematizadas.Publicaciones de la Cátedra de Historia de la Lengua Española. Universidad de Granada.ISBN 978-84-338-2315-1.

[21] Lomax, Derek W. (April 1968). "La lengua oficial de Castilla". In Rosetti, Alexandru; Reinheimer-Rîpeanu, Sanda (eds.).Actele celui de-al XII-lea congres internaţional de lingvistică şi filologie romanică.International Congress of Romance Linguistics and Philology (in Spanish). Vol. 2. Academiei Republicii Socialiste România (published 1971). pp. 411–417.

[22] "La" llingua "de los leoneses"(PDF).Furmientu(in Spanish).

[FOOTNOTEGarcía_Gil2008-23] García Gil 2008.

[24] Gómez Bautista, Alberto (2006)."Linguas en contacto na bisbarra do Bierzo: castelán, astur-leonés e galego"(PDF).Ianua: Revista Philologica Romanica(in Galician).6.Romania Minor: 15–22.ISSN 1616-413X.Retrieved25 August2022.

[25] González Riaño, Xosé Antón; García Arias, Xosé Lluis (2006).Estudiu sociollingüísticu de Lleón: Identidá, conciencia d'usu y actitúes llingüístiques nes fasteres que llenden con Asturies.Estaya Sociollingüística (in Asturian). Vol. 3. Oviedo, Spain: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana.

[26] Reforma del Estatuto de Autonomía de Castilla y León[Amendment to the Statute of Autonomy of the Castille and Leon] (Ley Orgánica 14/2007, 5) (in Spanish). Vol. 288. 1 December 2007. pp. 49486–49505 – viaBOE.

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