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Cyrenaica

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromLibya Superior)
For other uses, seeCyrenaica (disambiguation).
"Pentapolis (North Africa)" redirects here. For other uses, seePentapolis.
"Barqa" redirects here. For other uses, seeBarka.

Cyrenaica
برقة
Region
The traditional region of Cyrenaica (dark green), and the modern expansion (light green)
The traditional region of Cyrenaica (dark green), and the modern expansion (light green)
CountryLibya
Government
• Type

Cyrenaica(/ˌsaɪrəˈneɪɪkəˌˌsɪr-/SY-rə-NAY-ik-ə-,-SIRR-ə) orKyrenaika(Arabic:برقة,romanized:Barqah,Koinē Greek:Κυρηναϊκή [ἐπαρχία],romanized:Kurēnaïkḗ [eparkhíā],after the city ofCyrene), is the eastern region ofLibya.Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the16thand25thmeridians east, including theKufra District.The coastal region, also known asPentapolis( "Five Cities" ) inantiquity,was part of theRoman provinceofCrete and Cyrenaica,later divided intoLibya PentapolisandLibya Sicca.During the Islamic period, the area came to be known asBarqa,after the city ofBarca.

Cyrenaica becamean Italian colony in 1911.After the 1934 formation ofItalian Libya,theCyrenaica provincewas designated as one of the three primaryprovinces of the country.During World War II, it fell under British military and civil administration from 1943 until 1951, and finally in theKingdom of Libyafrom 1951 until 1963. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially until 1963 has formed severalshabiyat,theadministrative divisions of Libya,since 1995. The2011 Libyan Civil Warstarted in Cyrenaica, which came largely under the control of theNational Transitional Council(headquartered inBenghazi) for most of the war.[1]In 2012, a body known as theCyrenaica Transitional Councilunilaterally declared Cyrenaica to be anautonomous regionof Libya.[2][3]

Geography[edit]

Satellite image of Libya with Cyrenaica on the right side, showing the green Mediterranean coast in the north and the large desert in the centre and south

Geologically, Cyrenaica rests on a mass ofMiocenelimestonethat tilts up steeply from theMediterranean Seaand falls inland with a gradual descent tosea levelagain.

This mass is divided into two blocks. TheJebel Akhdarextends parallel to the coast from theGulf of Sidrato theGulf of Bombaand reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra pastBenghazitoTolmeita.Thereafter, except for deltaic patches atSusaandDerna,the shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range.[4]

The Jebel Akhdar and its adjacent coast are part of theMediterranean woodlands and forestsecoregionand have aMediterranean climateof hot, dry summers and relatively mild and rainy winters.[5]The plant communities of this portion of Cyrenaica include forest, woodland,maquis,garrigue,steppeandoak savanna.Garrigue shrublands occupy the non-agricultural portions coastal plain and coastal escarpments, withSarcopoterium spinosum,along withAsphodelus ramosusandArtemisia herba-alba,as the predominant species.[4][6]Small areas of maquis are found on north-facing slopes near the sea, becoming more extensive on the lower plateau.Juniperus phoenicea,Pistacia lentiscus,Quercus cocciferaandCeratonia siliquaare common tree and large shrub species in the maquis.[4][6]The upper plateau includes areas of garrigue, two maquis communities, one dominated byPistacia lentiscusand the other a mixed maquis in which the endemicArbutus pavariiis prominent, and forests ofCupressus sempervirens,Juniperus phoenicea,Olea europaea,Quercus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua,andPinus halepensis.[4]

Areas ofred soilare found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops ofwheatandbarleyfrom ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to the flocks and herds of the localBedouins.[7]Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops.[6]The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.[8]

The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by theMediterranean dry woodlands and steppe,a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-aridSahara.[9]

The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times asMarmarica,is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture.BombaandTobrukhave good harbors.[7]

South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as theLibyan Desert,and includes theGreat Sand Seaand theCalanshio Sand Sea.The Libyan Desert is home to a fewoases,includingAwjilaandJaghbub.

History[edit]

Berber people[edit]

TheBerberswere the earliest recorded inhabitants of Cyrenaica.[10]

Ancient Egyptian Era[edit]

Egyptian records mention that during theNew Kingdom of Egypt(thirteenth century BC), theLibuandMeshweshtribes of Cyrenaica made frequent incursions into Egypt.

Greek colonization[edit]

Cyrenaica wascolonized by the Greeksbeginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known asKyrenaïka.The first and most important colony was that ofCyrene,established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island ofThera,which they had abandoned because of a severe famine.[11]Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos.[12]His descendants, known as theBattiadae,persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.

The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was calledMarmarica;the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities:Cyrene(near the modern village of Shahat) with its port ofApollonia(Marsa Susa), Arsinoe orTaucheira(Tocra),Euesperidesor Berenice (near modernBenghazi), Balagrae (Bayda) andBarce(Marj) – of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.[11]The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle ofAmmonium.

The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle andsilphium,a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure andaphrodisiac.[13]

Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of theHellenistic style.TheCyrenaics,a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded byAristippusof Cyrene.[14]Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poetCallimachusand the mathematiciansTheodorusandEratosthenes.[13]

Persian rule[edit]

Main article:Libya (satrapy)

In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, theAchaemenid (Persian)army ofCambyses IIseized the Pentapolis, andestablished a satrapy(Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries.

Hellenistic era[edit]

The Persians were followed byAlexander the Greatin 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt.[11]The Pentapolis was formally annexed byPtolemy I Soter,and through him passed to thediadochdynasty of the Lagids, better known as thePtolemaic dynasty.It briefly gained independence underMagas of Cyrene,stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the mainkingdombyPtolemy VIIIand given to his sonPtolemy Apion,who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to theRoman Republic.

Roman province[edit]

Main articles:Crete and Cyrenaica,Praetorian prefecture of the East,andDiocese of Egypt
Crete and Cyrenaica,2nd centuryRoman Empire
Map ofCyrenaicaandMarmaricain the Roman era (Samuel Butler,1907)

The Latin nameCyrenaica(orKyrenika) dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together withCrete.It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighborAfrica proconsularis,and unlikeEgyptitself, which became an imperial domainsui generis(under a special governor styledpraefectus augustalis) in 30 BC.

Roman ruins ofPtolemais, Cyrenaica

Diocletian'sTetrarchyreforms of 293 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces:Libya SuperiororLibya Pentapolis,comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as its capital, andLibya InferiororLibya Sicca,comprisingMarmarica,with the important port city ofParaetoniumas its capital. Each came under a governor holding the modest rank ofpraeses.Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to theDiocese of Egypt,within thepraetorian prefectureofOriens.Its western neighborTripolitania,the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of theDiocese of Africa,subordinate to theprefecture ofItalia et Africa.Following theCrete earthquake of 365,the capital was moved toPtolemais.After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of theVandal Kingdomto the west, until itsreconquest by Belisariusin 533.

TheTabula PeutingerianashowsPentapolitesto the east ofSyrtes Maiores,indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Taucheira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis,Balacrisand Cyrene.[15]

Christianization[edit]

See also:Early centers of Christianity § Cyrene,andDiocese of Egypt (Late Antiquity)

According to theSynoptic Gospels,Simon of Cyrenecarried the cross of Jesus Christ to the crucifixion.

According to one tradition,Mark the Evangelistwas born in the Pentapolis, and later returned after preaching withPaul the ApostleinColosse(Col 4:10) andRome(Phil 24; 2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way toAlexandria.[16]

Early Christianityspread to Pentapolis from Egypt;Synesius of Cyrene(370–414), bishop ofPtolemais,received his instruction at Alexandria in boththe Catechetical Schooland theMouseion,and he entertained a great deal of reverence and affection forHypatia,the last paganNeoplatonist,whose classes he had attended. Synesius was raised to the episcopate byTheophilus,patriarch of Alexandria, in 410. Since theFirst Council of Nicaeain 325, Cyrenaica had been recognized as an ecclesiastical province of theSee of Alexandria,per the ruling of the Nicaean Fathers.The patriarch of the Coptic Churchto this day includes the Pentapolis in his title as an area within his jurisdiction.[17]

The Eparchy of the Western Pentapolis was part of theCoptic Orthodox Church,as thePope of Alexandriawas the Pope of Africa. The most senior position inThe Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Churchafter the Pope was the Metropolitan of Western Pentapolis, although, since its demise as a major Archiepiscopal Metropolis in the days ofPope John VI of Alexandria,it was held as a Titular See attached to another Diocese.

After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop,Zopyrus,was present at theFirst Council of Nicaeain 325. The subscriptions atEphesus(431) andChalcedon(451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus.

Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of theCoptic Orthodox Churchand theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.

Arab and Ottoman rule[edit]

Main articles:History of Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica,Ottoman Tripolitania,Rashidun Caliphate,Umayyad Caliphate,Abbasid Caliphate,andArab migrations to the Maghreb

Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command ofAmr ibn al-Asduring the tenure of the second caliph,Omar,inc. 642,[18]and became known asBarqahafter its provincial capital, the ancient city ofBarce.[19]After the breakdown of theUmmayad caliphateit was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under theFatimidcaliphs. The region became a base forpiracy,many of whom acted asprivateersfor the Fatimids.[20]Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from the Fatimids to theZirids.

In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the BedouinBanu Hilalconfederation devastated the North African coast under Zirid control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by theBanu Sulaymwhile the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade.[21]The number of Hilalians who moved westward out of Egypt has been estimated as high as 200,000 families. As a result of the migration by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became more Arab than any place in theArab worldexcept for the interior ofArabia.[22]TheAyyubidemir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders ofSaladinwho wanted to use the province as an agricultural base.[23]TheMamlukswere seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with the resident Bedouins to accept theirsuzeraintyindirectly while paying taxes.[23]TheOttoman Empirelater claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed intoOttoman Libya.[24]

In 1879, Cyrenaica became awilayahof the Ottoman Empire.[25]In 1888, it became amutasarrıfiyyaunder amutasarrifand was further divided into five qadaas. ThewaliofOttoman Tripolitania,however, looked after the military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion.[26]

Italian colonial rule[edit]

Main article:Italian Cyrenaica
EmirIdris as-Senussi(left), and behind him (from left)Hussein Maziq,Muhammad SakizliandMustafa Ben Halim,formed the government of Cyrenaica in late 1940s
Littorio Palace in Benghazi was the seat of the Cyrenaican assembly

The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during theItalo-Turkish Warin 1911 and declared it an Italianprotectorateon 15 October 1912. Three days later, theOttoman Empireofficially ceded the province to theKingdom of Italy.On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica was established as anItalian colony,and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognizedSheikh Sidi Idrissas the leader of theSenussi,who was granted the princely rank ofEmiruntil 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934,Tripolitania,Cyrenaica, andFezzanwere united as the Italian colony ofLibya.

The Italian fascists constructed theMarble Archas a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.

There was heavy fighting in Cyrenaica duringWorld War IIon the part of theAlliesagainst theItalian Armyand theNazi GermanAfrika Korps.In late 1942, Allied forces liberated Cyrenaica from Axis occupation and theUnited Kingdom administered most of Libyathrough 1951, when theKingdom of Libyawas established and granted independence.[27]

Emirate of Cyrenaica[edit]

Main article:Emirate of Cyrenaica
Flag of the short-livedemirate of Cyrenaica,1949–1951.

In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independentEmirate of Cyrenaica.This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris.

Gaddafi's Arab republic[edit]

See also:History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi

Since 1 September 1969, when theSenussidynasty was overthrown by ColonelMuammar Gaddafi,Cyrenaica occasionally experienced nationalist activity against Gaddafi'smilitary dictatorship[citation needed],including a military rebellion atTobrukin 1980.[28]

In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed bySaif al-Islam Gaddafi,announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firmFoster and Partners.The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as aculturalandeco-tourismdestination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene.[29]

For much of theLibyan civil war,Cyrenaica was largely under the control of theNational Transitional Councilwhile Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state,[30]but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.

Episcopal sees[edit]

Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province ofLibya SuperiororLibya Pentapolitanalisted in theAnnuario Pontificioastitular sees:[31]

For the ancient sees of Libya Inferior, seeMarmarica.
For those of Creta, seeByzantine Crete.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Endgame in Tripoli".The Economist.24 February 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
  2. ^"East Libya declares self-government".aljazeera.
  3. ^"Eastern Libyan leaders declare semi-autonomy".CNN.7 March 2012.
  4. ^abcdGimingham, C. H. and K. Walton (1954). "Environment and the Structure of Scrub Communities on the Limestone Plateaux of Northern Cyrenaica."Journal of Ecology,Vol. 42, No. 2, Jul., 1954
  5. ^"Mediterranean woodlands and forests". WWF Scientific Report[1].Accessed 27 March 2011
  6. ^abcEl-Darier, S. M. and F.M. El-Mogaspi (2009). "Ethnobotany and Relative Importance of Some Endemic Plant Species at El-Jabal El-Akhdar Region (Libya)".World Journal of Agricultural Sciences5 (3): 353-360, 2009, pp 353-360.
  7. ^ab"Cyrenaica", fromEncyclopædia BritannicaEleventh Edition, 1911
  8. ^The Report: Libya 2008,p. 134. Oxford Business Group.
  9. ^"North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report[2].Accessed 27 March 2011.
  10. ^Simons, Geoff (2003).Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie.I.B.Tauris. p. 1.ISBN9781860649882.
  11. ^abcRing, Trudyet al.(1996) "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)"International Dictionary of Historic Places: Volume 4: Middle East and AfricaFitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago,p. 194,ISBN1-884964-03-6
  12. ^Details of the founding are contained in Book IV ofHistories,byHerodotus of Halicarnassus
  13. ^abRing, Trudy, Robert M. Salkin and Sharon La Boda (1996). "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)" inInternational Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 4: Middle East and Africa.Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago and London.
  14. ^"Cyrenaica and the Greeks" fromThe Library of Congress Country Studies: Libya.2001.[3].Accessed 27 March 2011.
  15. ^Agricole Joseph F.X.P.E.S.P.A. Fortia d'Urban (marq. de), Bénigne Emmanuel C. Miller,Recueil des itinéraires anciens, comprenant l'itinéraire d'Antonin, la table de Peutinger, et un choix des périples grecs,1845,p. 286
  16. ^"St. Mark the Apostle, the Founder of the Coptic Church",Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States, accessed 19 May 2009
  17. ^"Atiya, Aziz S." The Copts and Christian CivilizationCoptic.net
  18. ^Krais, Jakob (2021)."Barqa (Cyrenaica)".In Fleet, Kate;Krämer, Gudrun;Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;Rowson, Everett(eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam(3rd ed.). Brill Online.ISSN1873-9830.
  19. ^Popovkin, Alex V.; Rowson, Everett K. (7 June 2007).The History of al-Tabari: Index.Vol. XL.SUNY Press.p. 109.ISBN9780791472514.
  20. ^Goitein, S. D. (1999).A Mediterranean Society The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. I: Economic Foundations.University of California Press. pp. 327–328.ISBN9780520221581.
  21. ^Khalilieh, Hassan Salih (1998).Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction.BRILL.ISBN9004109552.
  22. ^Wright, John (2012).A History of Libya.Hurst. p. xv.ISBN978-1-84904-227-7.
  23. ^abBaadj, Amar S. (19 June 2015).Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries).BRILL.ISBN9789004298576.
  24. ^Lapidus, Ira M. (22 October 2012).Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139851121.
  25. ^Anderson, Lisa (14 July 2014).The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980.Princeton University Press.ISBN9781400859023.
  26. ^Baldinetti, Anna (12 May 2014).The Origins of the Libyan Nation: Colonial Legacy, Exile and the Emergence of a New Nation-State.Routledge.ISBN9781135245023.
  27. ^Stewart, John (1996) "Cyrenaica"The British Empire: An Encyclopedia of the Crown's Holdings, 1493 through 1995McFarland & Co., Jefferson, North Carolina, p. 125,ISBN0-7864-0177-X
  28. ^Associated Press, 'Libyan Opposition to Khadafy Growing but Fragmented Says Expert,' 17 April 1986.
  29. ^Rose, Steve. "Gadafy's green vision".The Guardian12 September 2007. Accessed 2 April 2011.[4]
  30. ^"Two-state solution for Libya?".BBC Today programme. 25 March 2011.Retrieved24 December2011.
  31. ^Annuario Pontificio 2013(Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013ISBN978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013
  • WestermannGrosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte(in German).

Further reading[edit]

  • Cyrenaica in Antiquity(Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers). Graeme Barker, John Lloyd, Joyce ReynoldsISBN0-86054-303-X
  • Sandro Lorenzatti,Note archeologiche e topografiche sull’itinerario da Derna a Cirene seguito da Claude Le Maire (1706),in "L'Africa romana XX", Roma 2015, vol. 2, pp. 955–970.

Sources and external links[edit]

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