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Liquid consonant

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Inlinguistics,aliquid consonantor simplyliquidis any of a class ofconsonantsthat consists ofrhoticsandvoicedlateral approximants,which are also sometimes described as "R-like sounds" and "L-like sounds". The wordliquidseems to be acalqueof the Ancient Greek wordὑγρός(hygrós,transl. moist), initially used by grammarianDionysius Thraxto describe Greeksonorants.

Liquid consonants are more prone to be part ofconsonant clustersand of thesyllable nucleus.Their thirdformantsare generally non-predictable based on the first two formants. Another important feature is their complexarticulation,which makes them a hard consonant class to study with precision and the last consonants to be produced by children during theirphonological development.They are also more likely to undergo certain types ofphonological changessuch asassimilation,dissimilationandmetathesis.

Most languages have at least one liquid in theirphonemic inventory.English has two, /l/ and /ɹ/.

History and etymology[edit]

The grammarianDionysius Thraxused theAncient Greekwordὑγρός(hygrós,transl. moist) to describe thesonorantconsonants (/l,r,m,n/) ofclassical Greek.[1][2]It is assumed that the term referred to their changing or inconsistent (or "fluid" ) effect onmeterin classical Greek verse when they occur as the second member of aconsonant cluster(see below).[1][3]This word wascalquedintoLatinasliquidus(possibly because of a mistranslation),[3]whence it has been retained in the Western European phonetic tradition.

Sonority and syllable structure[edit]

In thesonority hierarchy,liquids are considered the most sonorous sounds after vowels and glides,[4]with laterals considered to be less sonorous than rhotics.[5]This explains why they are more likely to be part of consonant clusters than other consonants (excluding glides), and to followobstruentsin initialconsonant clustersand precede them in final consonant clusters.[6]

Liquids also hold this position in the hierarchy of syllable peaks,[6]which means that liquids are theoretically more likely to besyllabic(or, in other words, be part of asyllable nucleus) than any other consonants,[7]although some studies show that syllabic nasals are overall more favoured.[6]ThusCzechand other Slavic languages allow their liquid consonants/l/and/r/to be the center of their syllables – as witnessed by the classictonguetwisterstrč prst skrz krk"push (your) finger through (your) throat." This is also true forGeneral American English(see the wordsbarrelandanchor) andother English accents.

Sequences of anobstruentand a liquid consonant are often ambiguous as far assyllabificationis concerned. In these cases, whether the two consonants are part of the same syllable or not heavily depends on the individual language, and closely related languages can behave differently (such as Icelandic and Faroese).[8]In Latin and Ancient Greek, obstruent + liquid consonant clusters (known asmuta cum liquida)[5]supposedly were ambiguous in this sense, and as such were often used to manipulate meter.[8]

Acoustic and articulatory phonetics[edit]

Acoustically,liquids seem to have a thirdformantof unexpected value when compared to the first and second formants. This contrasts with non-liquidapproximants,whose third formant value is expected based on the first two formants.[9]

Inarticulatory phonetics,liquids are described ascontrolledgestures,[10]which are slower and require more precise tongue movement during the "homing phase", when the tongue adjusts towards the place of articulation of the consonant.[11]Due to the fact that babies preferballistic gestures,which rely on the propelling motion of the jaw, liquids usually occur later in a child'sphonological development,[12][13]and they are more likely to be deleted in consonant clusters before the age of three.[14][15]Liquids have also been described as consonants involving "complex lingual geometries."[16]

To better determine the full range of articulatory and acoustic characteristics of liquids, the use ofultrasoundpaired with audio recordings is increasing. This is due to this consonant group being difficult to analyse on a purely auditory base.[16]

Liquids and phonological change[edit]

Liquids seem to be more or less subjected to certain sound changes or phonological processes than other consonants. On an auditory level, liquid consonants resemble each other, which is likely the reason they undergo or triggerassimilation,dissimilationandmetathesis.[17]

Metathesis[edit]

Cross-linguistically, liquids tend to be more prone tometathesisthan other consonants,[18]especially long-distance metathesis.[19]

In Spanish, a frequent example is the behaviour of /r/ and /l/:

In English,comfortableis frequently pronounced /ˈkʌmf.tɚ.bəl/ in rhotic varieties, although its stem,comfortis pronounced /ˈkʌm.fɚt/, with the rhotic /ɹ/ in its original position.

Assimilation[edit]

Liquid consonant can also undergoassimilation(cf.Sicilianparrari"to speak" andItalianparlare). This phenomenon is one of the reasons long liquids are common inFinnishdespite being not so common worldwide.[20]Seetullutfrom theroottul-"to come" and thepast participlesuffix -nut.

A specific form of liquid assimilation, liquidharmony,is present is some languages. In Sundanese, some morphemes have two different realisations depending on what liquid is present in the root.[19]

Dissimilation[edit]

Liquids are also prone todissimilationwhen they occur in sequence.[18]For example,Old Italiancolonnello"colonel" is borrowed intoMiddle Frenchascoronnel,which is in turned loaned into English ascolonel,with an orthography inspired by Italian but with the /ˈkɚnəl/ or /ˈkɜːnel/ pronunciation with the rhoticr,which is absent in writing.

Epenthesis[edit]

Epenthesis,or the addition of sounds, is common in environments where liquids are present, especiallyconsonant clusters.The epenthetic sound can be a vowel or a consonant.[18]For example, the genitive of theAncient Greeknounἀνήρanḗr"man" isἀνδρόςandrós,with the insertion of a [d] sound between anasal consonantand the liquid [r]. Another example is theIrishwordbolg"belly", usually pronounced with an epentheticschwa[ə] after the liquid [lˠ]:[ˈbˠɔlˠəg].

Other types of phonological change[edit]

Liquids can often be the result oflenition,[18]the change of a consonant towards characteristics that are typical of vowels, making it "weaker". They are also likely to becomevowelsorglides,a process known as vocalisation.[21]See, for example,SiciliancaudufromLatincalidus.

Occurrence and geographical distribution[edit]

According to a survey by linguistIan Maddieson,most languages have one to three liquids (with systems of two liquids being the most common) and they are usuallydentaloralveolar.[22]Liquid consonants are also rarelygeminatedcross-linguistically.[22]

Many languages, such asJapanese,Korean,orPolynesian languages(see below), have a single liquidphonemethat has both lateral and rhoticallophones.[23]

Englishhas two liquid phonemes, one lateral,/l/and one rhotic,/ɹ/,exemplified in the wordsledandred.

Many other European languages have one lateral and one rhotic phoneme. Some, such asGreek,ItalianandSerbo-Croatian,have more than two liquid phonemes. All three languages have the set/l/,/ʎ/,/r/,with two laterals and one rhotic. Similarly, theIberian languagescontrast four liquid phonemes./l/,/ʎ/,/ɾ/,and a fourth phoneme that is analveolar trillin all but many varieties ofPortuguese,where it is auvulartrill or fricative (also, the majority of Spanish speakers lack/ʎ/and use the central/ʝ/instead). Some European languages, for exampleRussianandIrish,contrast apalatalizedlateral–rhotic pair with an unpalatalized (orvelarized) set (e.g./lʲ//rʲ//l//r/in Russian).

Elsewhere in the world, two liquids of the types mentioned above remains the most common attribute of a language's consonant inventory except in North America andAustralia.In North America, a majority of languages do not have rhotics at all and there is a wide variety oflateral soundsthough most areobstruentlaterals rather than liquids. Most indigenous Australian languages are very rich in liquids, with some having as many as seven distinct liquids. They typically include dental, alveolar, retroflex and palatal laterals, and as many as three rhotics.

On the other side, there are many indigenous languages in theAmazon Basinand eastern North America, as well as a few in Asia and Africa, with no liquids.

Polynesian languagestypically have only one liquid, which may be either a lateral or a rhotic. Non-PolynesianOceanic languagesusually have both/l/and/r/,occasionally more (e.g.Arakihas/l/,/ɾ/,/r/) or less (e.g.Mwotlaphas only/l/).Hiwis unusual in having aprestoppedvelar lateral/ᶢʟ/as its only liquid.[24]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^abAllen, William Sidney (1965).Phonetics in ancient India.Oxford University Press. p. 31.
  2. ^Wiese, Richard (2011-04-28)."The Representation of Rhotics".The Blackwell Companion to Phonology:1–19.doi:10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0030.ISBN978-1-4051-8423-6.
  3. ^abAshby, Michael; Maidment, John (2005-03-24).Introducing Phonetic Science.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-00496-1.
  4. ^Gordon, Matthew K. (2016-04-01),"Introduction",Phonological Typology,Oxford University Press, pp. 1–16,doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669004.003.0001,ISBN978-0-19-966900-4,retrieved2023-12-28
  5. ^abWiese, Richard (2011-04-28)."The Representation of Rhotics".The Blackwell Companion to Phonology:1–19.doi:10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0030.ISBN978-1-4051-8423-6.
  6. ^abcGordon, Matthew K. (2016-04-01),"Syllables",Phonological Typology,Oxford University Press, pp. 83–122,doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669004.003.0004,ISBN978-0-19-966900-4,retrieved2023-12-28
  7. ^Anderson, Catherine (2018-03-15),"3.5 Syllabic Consonants",Essentials of Linguistics,McMaster University,retrieved2021-02-02
  8. ^abMailhammer, Robert; Restle, David; Vennemann, Theo (2015-04-07). Honeybone, Patrick; Salmons, Joseph (eds.)."Preference Laws in Phonological Change".Oxford Handbooks Online.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232819.013.032.
  9. ^Hayes, Bruce (2009).Introductory Phonology(1st ed.). Blackwell. p. 19.ISBN978-1-4443-6013-4.
  10. ^Stoel-Gammon, Carol; Ferguson, Charles Albert; Menn, Lise (1992). "The biology of phonological development".Phonological Development:65–90.
  11. ^MacKenzie, C. L.; Marteniuk, R. G.; Dugas, C.; Liske, D.; Eickmeier, B. (November 1987)."Three-Dimensional Movement Trajectories in Fitts' Task: Implications for Control".The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A.39(4): 629–647.doi:10.1080/14640748708401806.ISSN0272-4987.S2CID143471338.
  12. ^Rose, Yvan; McAllister, Tara; Inkelas, Sharon (2021-11-30),"Developmental Phonetics of Speech Production",The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics,Cambridge University Press, pp. 578–602,doi:10.1017/9781108644198.024,ISBN978-1-108-64419-8,S2CID244070672,retrieved2023-12-13
  13. ^Yeni-Komshian, Grace H.; Kavanagh, James F.; Ferguson, Charles Albert (1980).Child phonology.Perspectives in neurolinguistics, neuropsychology, and psycholinguistics. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development U.S. New York: Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-770601-6.
  14. ^Rose, Yvan; McAllister, Tara; Inkelas, Sharon (2021), Setter, Jane; Knight, Rachael-Anne (eds.),"Developmental Phonetics of Speech Production",The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics,Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 578–602,ISBN978-1-108-49573-8,retrieved2023-12-29
  15. ^Grunwell, Pamela (1982).Clinical Phonology.Aspen Systems Corporation.ISBN978-0-89443-392-4.
  16. ^abDrager, Katie; Kettig, Thomas (2021), Setter, Jane; Knight, Rachael-Anne (eds.),"Sociophonetics",The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics,Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 551–577,ISBN978-1-108-49573-8,retrieved2023-12-29
  17. ^Gordon, Matthew K. (2016-04-01),"Phoneme inventories",Phonological Typology,Oxford University Press, pp. 43–82,doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669004.003.0003,ISBN978-0-19-966900-4,retrieved2023-12-30
  18. ^abcdCser, András (2014-11-03). Honeybone, Patrick; Salmons, Joseph (eds.)."Basic Types of Phonological Change".Oxford Handbooks Online.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232819.013.036.
  19. ^abGordon, Matthew K. (2016-04-01),"Segmental processes",Phonological Typology,Oxford University Press, pp. 123–174,doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669004.003.0005,ISBN978-0-19-966900-4,retrieved2023-12-30
  20. ^Bybee, Joan (2015-04-07). Honeybone, Patrick; Salmons, Joseph (eds.)."Articulatory Processing and Frequency of Use in Sound Change".Oxford Handbooks Online.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232819.013.016.
  21. ^Morén-Duolljá, Bruce (2011-04-28)."Vowel Place".The Blackwell Companion to Phonology:1–25.doi:10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0019.ISBN978-1-4051-8423-6.
  22. ^abGordon, Matthew K. (2016-04-01),"Phoneme inventories",Phonological Typology,Oxford University Press, pp. 43–82,doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199669004.003.0003,ISBN978-0-19-966900-4,retrieved2023-12-30
  23. ^Ladefoged, Peter;Maddieson, Ian(1996).The Sounds of the World's Languages.Oxford: Blackwell. p. 182.ISBN0-631-19815-6.
  24. ^François, Alexandre (2010a),"Phonotactics and the prestopped velar lateral of Hiw: Resolving the ambiguity of a complex segment",Phonology,27(3): 393–434,doi:10.1017/s0952675710000205,S2CID62628417.
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