List of research methods in biology
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Thislist of research methods in biologyis an index to articles about research methodologies used in variousbranchesofbiology.
Research design and analysis[edit]
Research designs[edit]
| Research design | Utility | Potential analysis |
|---|---|---|
| Between-group design | Experiment that has two or more groups of subjects each being tested by a different testing factor simultaneously | Student's t-test,Analysis of variance,Mann–Whitney U test |
| Repeated measures design | Aresearch designthat involves multiple measures of the same variable taken on the same or matched subjects either under different conditions or over two or more time periods.[1] | Paired t-test,Wilcoxon signed-rank test |
Charts and diagrams[edit]
| Analysis | Utility | Branch |
|---|---|---|
| Dose–response curves | Graph that shows the magnitude of theresponseof anorganism,as afunctionof exposure (ordoses) to astimulusorstressor(usually achemical) after a certain exposure time[2] | Physiology |
| Electroencephalogram | Graph that shows voltage fluctuations resulting fromionic currentwithin theneuronsof thebrain[3] | Neuroscience |
| Electrocardiogram | Graph ofvoltageversus time of the electrical activity of theheart[4]usingelectrodesplaced on the skin | Physiology |
| Manhattan plot | Used to display data with a large number of data-points, many of non-zero amplitude, and with a distribution of higher-magnitude values. The plot is commonly used ingenome-wide association studies(GWAS) to display significantSNPs.[5] | Genetics |
| Pedigree chart | Used to show the occurrence ofphenotypesof a particular gene ororganismand itsancestorsfrom one generation to the next,[6][7][8]most commonlyhumans,showdogs,[9]and racehorses | Genetics |
| Phylogenetic tree | Used to show theevolutionaryrelationships among various biologicalspeciesor other entities based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics | Systematics,Evolutionary biology |
| Population pyramid | Used to illustrate the distribution of apopulation(typically that of a country or region of the world) by age groups and sex; it typically forms the shape of apyramidwhen the population is growing[10] | Population ecology |
| Punnett square | Used to predict thegenotypesof a particular cross or breeding experiment | Genetics |
Statistical analyses[edit]
| Analysis | Utility | Type |
|---|---|---|
| Analysis of variance | A collection ofstatistical modelsand their associated estimation procedures (such as the "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences among means | Statistical model |
| Chi-squared test | Astatistical hypothesis testthat isvalidto perform when the test statistic ischi-squared distributedunder thenull hypothesis,specificallyPearson's chi-squared testand variants thereof | Statistical hypothesis test |
| Mann–Whitney U test | Astatistical hypothesis testof thenull hypothesisthat, for randomly selected valuesXandYfrom two populations, the probability ofXbeing greater thanYis equal to the probability ofYbeing greater thanX | Nonparametric statistics |
| Student's t-test | Anystatistical hypothesis testin which thetest statisticfollows aStudent'st-distributionunder thenull hypothesis | Parametric statistics |
Laboratory techniques[edit]
| Method | Utility | Branches |
|---|---|---|
| Agarose gel electrophoresis | Used to separate a mixed population of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix ofagarose,one of the two main components ofagar | Biochemistry,Molecular biology,Genetics |
| Animal Model | Used for researching diseases and disorders in humans. Some animals may have human-like traits, such asmice,while others may have traits that are ideal for research, such as thesquid giant axon | Biochemistry,Neuroscience,Physiology |
| Biological ablation | Used to remove a biological structure or functionality | Genetics,Physiology |
| Calcium imaging | Used to optically measure the status ofcalciumions (Ca2+) in anisolated cell,tissue or medium | Physiology |
| Cell isolation | Process of separating individual livingcellsfrom a solid block of tissue or cell suspension | Cell biology |
| Centrifugation | Use ofcentrifugal forceto separate particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, medium viscosity, and rotor speed | Cell biology,Biochemistry |
| CRISPR gene editing | Used to modify thegenomesof living organisms based on a simplified version of the bacterialCRISPR-Cas9antiviral defense system | Molecular biology |
| DNA sequencer | Used to automate the DNA sequencing process | Genetics,Molecular biology |
| Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) | Used to detect the presence of aligand(commonly a protein) in a liquid sample using antibodies directed against the protein to be measure | Biochemistry,Molecular biology |
| Gene knockout | Used to make one of an organism's genes inoperative ( "knocked out" of the organism) | Molecular biology,Genetics |
| Immunostaining | Used of anantibody-based method to detect a specificproteinin a sample | Molecular biology,Biochemistry |
| Intracellular recording | Used to measure the voltage across a cell membrane | Neuroscience,Electrophysiology |
| Microarray | Assays(tests) large amounts ofbiological materialusinghigh-throughput screeningminiaturized, multiplexed and parallel processing and detection methods | Genetics,Molecular biology |
| Microelectrode array | Devices that contain multiple (tens to thousands)microelectrodesthrough which neuralsignalsare obtained or delivered, essentially serving as neural interfaces that connectneuronstoelectronic circuitry | Neuroscience |
| Microscope | Used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye | Cell biology |
| Molecular cloning | Used to assemblerecombinant DNAmolecules and to direct theirreplicationwithinhost organisms.[11] | Molecular biology |
| Northern blot | Used to studygene expressionby detection ofRNA(or isolatedmRNA) in a sample.[12][13] | Molecular biology |
| Optogenetics | Uses light to controlneuronsthat have been genetically modified toexpresslight-sensitiveion channels | Neuroscience |
| Oscilloscope | Used to graphically displays varying signalvoltages,usually as a calibrated two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time | Neuroscience,Physiology |
| Paper chromatography | Used to separate coloured chemicals or substances.[14] | Molecular biology |
| Patch clamp | Used to study ionic currents in individual isolated living cells, tissue sections, or patches of cell membrane | Electrophysiology,Neuroscience |
| Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | Used to rapidly make millions to billions of copies (complete copies or partial copies) of a specific DNA sample, allowing scientists to take a very small sample of DNA and amplify it (or a part of it) to a large enough amount to study in detail | Genetics,Molecular biology |
| Somatic cell nuclear transfer | Used for creating a viableembryofrom abody celland anegg cell | Developmental biology |
| Southern blot | Used to detect specificDNA sequencein DNA samples | Molecular biology |
| Test cross | Used to determine whether an individual is homozygous or heterozygous dominant | Genetics |
| Voltage clamp | Used to measure theioncurrentsthrough themembranesof excitable cells, such asneurons,while holding the membranevoltageat a set level.[15] | Physiology,Neuroscience |
| Western blot | Usedanalytical techniqueinmolecular biologyandimmunogeneticsto detect specificproteinsin a sample of tissue homogenate or extract | Molecular biology |
| X-ray crystallography | Used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of acrystal,in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incidentX-raystodiffractinto many specific directions | Structural biology |
Field techniques[edit]
| Method | Utility | Branches |
|---|---|---|
| Distance sampling | Used for estimating thedensityand/orabundanceofpopulations | Ecology |
| Mark and recapture | Used to estimate an animalpopulation's size where it is impractical to count every individual.[16] | Ecology |
Computational tools[edit]
Mathematical models[edit]
| Model | Utility | Branches |
|---|---|---|
| Exponential integrate-and-fire | Describes compact and computationally efficient nonlinearspiking neuron modelswith one or two variables | Neuroscience |
| FitzHugh–Nagumo model | Describes a prototype of an excitable system (e.g., aneuron) | Neuroscience |
| Hardy–Weinberg principle | States thatalleleand genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences | Genetics,Evolutionary biology |
| Hodgkin–Huxley model | Describes howaction potentialsinneuronsare initiated and propagated | Neuroscience |
| Infinite sites model | Allows for the calculation ofheterozygosity,orgenetic diversity,in a finite population and for the estimation ofgenetic distancesbetween populations of interest[17] | Evolutionary biology |
| Logistic growth | Describes the growth of a population as exponential, followed by a decrease in growth, and bound by a carrying capacity due to environmental pressures.[18] | Ecology |
| Lotka–Volterra equations | Describe thedynamicsofbiological systemsin which two species interact, one as apredatorand the other as prey | Ecology |
| Moran process | Stochastic processthat describes finite populations | Genetics |
| Species–area relationship | describes the relationship between the area of ahabitat,or of part of a habitat, and the number ofspeciesfound within that area | Ecology |
Algorithms[edit]
| Algorithm | Utility | Branches |
|---|---|---|
| Evolutionary algorithm | Uses mechanisms inspired bybiological evolution.Candidate solutionsto theoptimization problemplay the role of individuals in a population, and thefitness functiondetermines the quality of the solutions. | Neuroscience |
References[edit]
- ^Salkind, Neil J. (2010).Repeated Measures Design.SAGE.doi:10.4135/9781412961288.ISBN9781412961271.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2019.Retrieved8 January2019.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ^Crump, K. S.; Hoel, D. G.; Langley, C. H.; Peto, R. (1 September 1976)."Fundamental Carcinogenic Processes and Their Implications for Low Dose Risk Assessment".Cancer Research.36(9 Part 1): 2973–2979.PMID975067.Archivedfrom the original on 16 February 2015.Retrieved16 March2024.
- ^Niedermeyer E.; da Silva F.L. (2004).Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields.Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.ISBN978-0-7817-5126-1.[page needed]
- ^Lilly, Leonard S, ed. (2016).Pathophysiology of Heart Disease: A Collaborative Project of Medical Students and Faculty(sixth ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 74.ISBN978-1451192759.
- ^Gibson, Greg (2010). "Hints of hidden heritability in GWAS".Nature Genetics.42(7): 558–560.doi:10.1038/ng0710-558.PMID20581876.S2CID34546516.
- ^pedigree chartArchived2013-12-03 at theWayback MachineGenealogy Glossary - About, a part of The New York Times Company.
- ^"HELP - Ancestral File - Pedigree Chart".familysearch.org.Archivedfrom the original on 7 February 2009.Retrieved6 April2018.
- ^Documenting Your Pedigree ChartArchived2009-06-07 at theWayback MachineBy Melody Daisson - GeneaSearch
- ^"AKC Pedigree: How to Purchase a Document on Your Dog's Lineage".Archivedfrom the original on 2015-02-07.Retrieved2021-08-10.
- ^"Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100".PopulationPyramid.net.Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2018.Retrieved21 April2018.
- ^Watson JD (2007).Recombinant DNA: genes and genomes: a short course.San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.ISBN978-0-7167-2866-5.
- ^Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J. Raff, M., Roberts, K., Walter, P. 2008. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th ed. Garland Science, Taylor & Francis Group, NY, pp 538–539.
- ^Kevil, C. G., Walsh, L., Laroux, F. S., Kalogeris, T., Grisham, M. B., Alexander, J. S. (1997) An Improved, Rapid Northern Protocol. Biochem. and Biophys. Research Comm. 238:277–279.
- ^"Paper chromatography | chemistry".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-11-06.Retrieved2018-06-01.
- ^Nowotny, Dr Thomas; Levi, Dr Rafael (2014). "Voltage-Clamp Technique". In Jaeger, Dieter; Jung, Ranu (eds.).Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience.Springer New York. pp. 1–5.doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7320-6_137-2.ISBN9781461473206.
- ^"Mark-Recapture".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-09-23.Retrieved2021-07-21.
- ^Kimura, Motoo (1969-04-01)."The Number of Heterozygous Nucleotide Sites Maintained in a Finite Population Due to Steady Flux of Mutations".Genetics.61(4): 893–903.doi:10.1093/genetics/61.4.893.ISSN0016-6731.PMC1212250.PMID5364968.
- ^Renshaw, Eric (1991).Modeling Biological Populations in Space and Time.Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–9.
