Litotes

Inrhetoric,litotes(/laɪˈtoʊtiːz,ˈlaɪtətiːz/,US:/ˈlɪtətiːz/),also known classically asantenantiosisormoderatour,is afigure of speechand form ofironyin which understatement is used to emphasize a point by stating a negative to further affirm a positive, often incorporatingdouble negativesfor effect.Litotes is a form ofunderstatement,which can be in the form ofmeiosis,and is always deliberate with the intention ofemphasis.However, the interpretation of negation may depend on context, including cultural context. In speech, litotes may also depend on intonation and emphasis; for example, the phrase "not bad" can be intonated differently so as to mean either "mediocre" or "excellent".Along the same lines, litotes can be used (as a form ofauxesis), toeuphemisticallyprovide emphasis by diminishing the harshness of an observation; "He isn't the cleanest person I know" could be used as a means of indicating that someone is a messy person.

The use of litotes is common inEnglish,Russian,German,Yiddish,Dutch,Hebrew,Aramaic,Greek,Ukrainian,Polish,Chinese,French,CzechandSlovak,and is also prevalent in a number of other languages and dialects. It is a feature ofOld English poetryand of theIcelandic sagasand is a means of much stoical restraint.

The word litotes is of Greek origin (λιτότης), meaning 'simplicity', and is derived from the wordλιτός,litos,meaning 'plain, simple, small or meager'.

Classical litotes

The first known mention of litotes is in a letter fromCiceroin 55 BC (De Oratore). Cicero uses the word to mean simplicity (or frugality) of life. The meaning and the function of the word changed from 'simple' to the idea of understatement that involves double negatives, a way to state things simply.

Old Norsehad several types of litotes. These points are denied negatives ( "She's not a terrible wife" meaning "she's a good wife" ), denied positives ( "He's not a great learner" meaning 'he has difficulty learning'), creating litotes without negating anything, and creating litotes using a negative adjective ( "Days spent in his home left him unenthused" meaning 'he preferred to be out and about').

Litotes and ethos

Litotes can be used to establishethos,or credibility, by expressing modesty or downplaying one's accomplishments to gain the audience's favor. In the bookRhetorica ad Herennium,litotes is addressed as a member of the Figures of Thought known asdeminutio,or understatement. It is listed in conjunction with antenantiosis and meiosis, two other forms of rhetorical deminutio.For example, a very accomplished artist might say "I'm not a bad painter", and by refraining from bragging but still acknowledging his skill, the artist is seen as talented, modest, and credible.

Examples

Litotes	Instead of saying
"Not bad."	"Good."
"It's not my favorite..."	"I don't like it."
"Not too shabby!"	"Nice!"
"Non-trivial."	"Very complex."
"It's not the cheapest..."	"It's a somewhat expensive..."
"Not unlike..."	"Like..."
"Not great, Bob!"	"Very lousy, Bob!"
"The weather isn't great."	"It's raining."
"It's not a masterpiece."	"It's mediocre."

Other languages

Classical Greek

InClassical Greek,instances of litotes can be found as far back asHomer.In Book 24 of theIliad,ZeusdescribesAchillesas follows: "οὔτε γάρ ἔστ᾽ ἄφρων οὔτ᾽ ἄσκοπος"(line 186), 'he is neither unthinking, nor unseeing', meaning that he is both wise and prudent.

French

InFrench,pas mal(not bad) is used similarly to the English, whileil n'est pas antipathique('he is not disagreeable') is another example, actually meaningil est très sympathique('he is nice'), though the speaker is reluctant to admit it. Another typical example isCe n'est pas bête!('It's not stupid'), generally said to admit a clever suggestion without showing oneself as too enthusiastic. (As with all litotes, this phrase can also be used with its literal meaning that the thing is not stupid but rather may be clever or occupy the middle ground between stupid and clever.)

One of the most famous litotes of French literature is inPierre Corneille'sLe Cid(1636). The heroine, Chimène, says to her lover Rodrigue, who just killed her father:Va, je ne te hais point('Go, I hate you not'), meaning 'I love you'.

Chinese

InChinese,the phraseKhông tồi(Pinyin:bù cuò,traditional charactersKhông tồi,literally 'not wrong') is often used to present something as very good or correct. In this way, it is distinct in meaning from the English 'not bad' (though not 'not bad at all') or the general use of the Frenchpas mal.Also, the phraseKhông đơn giản(pinyinbù jiǎn dān,traditional charactersKhông đơn giản,literally 'not simple') is used to refer to an impressive feat.

Danish

InDanish,understatements using litotes are seen as characteristic of theJutlandic dialect.A stereotypical example is the phrasedet er ikke så ringe endda('it is not even so bad'), which is used to mean 'that's great'.

Dutch and German

Similarly, inDutch,the phraseniet slecht(also literally meaning 'not bad') is often used to present something as very good or correct, as isGermannicht schlecht.

Italian

InItalian,meno male(literally 'less bad') is similar to the English expression, 'So much the better' – used to comment that a situation is more desirable than its negative (cf.Winston Churchill's comment, since transformed into asnowclone,that "democracy is the worst form of government except for all the others" ).

Latin

InLatin,an example of litotes can be found inOvid'sMetamorphoses:non semel(bk. 1 ln. 692, 'not one occasion'), meaning 'on more than one occasion'. Some common words are derived from litotes:nonnullifromnon nulli('not none') is understood to mean 'several', whilenonnumquamfromnon numquam('not never') is used for 'sometimes'.

Russian

Perhaps the most common litote inRussianisнеплохо('not bad'). Somewhat unusually, it is permissible to say something isочень неплохо('very not bad') to signify that it is, in fact, very good. An example of litotes can be found in theNikolai Gogol'sThe Government Inspector,in which the Mayor says: "There's no such thing as a man with no sins on his conscience", meaning 'All men have sins on their conscience' (Act 1, Scene 1). In this case, it is used to downplay the Mayor's statement – a euphemism of sorts – making it less harsh than its understood meaning.

Spanish

InSpanish,it is usual to sayNo es nada tonto('It's not at all foolish'), as a form of compliment (i.e., to say something was smart or clever). Another common Spanish phrase ismenos mal(cf. Italianmeno maleabove), meaning literally 'less bad', but used in the same way as the English phrases "Thank goodness!" or "It's just as well".

Swedish

InSwedish,it is quite common to use litotes. For example, when one chances to meet someone after a long time it is usual to say:Det var inte igår('It wasn't yesterday').

Turkish

InTurkish,it is quite common to sayHiç fena değil!('Not bad at all!') as a form of compliment.

Welsh

InWelsh,Siomi ar yr ochr orau('To be disappointed on the best side') means 'to be pleasantly surprised'.

See also

• Antiphrasis
• Hyperbole

References

• Smyth, Herbert Weir(1920).Greek Grammar.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp.680.ISBN0674362500.
• Hollander, Lee M.(1938). "Litotes in Old Norse". Vol. 53, no. 1. PMLA. pp. 1–33.JSTOR458399.
• Lanham, Richard A.(1991).A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms(2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 95–96.ISBN0520076699.

External links

• Shovel, Martin (26 March 2015)."Litotes: The most common rhetorical device you've never heard of".The Guardian.
• Biblical Litotes
• Definition and examples
• "Litotes".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). 1911.