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Lydia

Coordinates:40°N30°E/ 40°N 30°E/40; 30
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Maeonia" and "Maionia" redirect here. For the town of that name, seeMaionia in Lydia.

For other uses, seeLydia (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withLycia.
Kingdom of Lydia
1200–546 BC
Map of the Lydian Kingdom in its final period of sovereignty under Croesus, c. 547 BC.
Map of the Lydian Kingdom in its final period of sovereignty underCroesus,c. 547 BC.
CapitalSardis
Common languagesLydian
Religion
Lydian religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Kings[a]
• 680–644 BC
Gyges
• 644–637 BC
Ardys
• 637–635 BC
Sadyattes
• 635–585 BC
Alyattes
• 585–546 BC
Croesus
Historical eraIron Age
1200 BC
670–630s BC
612–600 BC
590–585 BC
546 BC
CurrencyCroeseid
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Hittites
Phrygia
Cimmerians
Treri
Ionian League
Achaemenid Empire

Lydia(Ancient Greek:Λυδία,romanized:Lūdiā;Latin:Lȳdia) was anIron Agekingdomsituated in the west ofAsia Minor,in modern-dayTurkey.The ethnic group inhabiting this kingdom are known as theLydians,and their language asLydianand their capital wasSardis.[1]

The Kingdom of Lydia existed from about 1200 BC to 546 BC. At its greatest extent, during the 7th century BC, it covered all of westernAnatolia.In 546 BC, it became asatrapyof theAchaemenid Empire,known asSpardainOld Persian.In 133 BC, it became part of theRomanprovince of Asia.

The region of the Lydian kingdom was during the 15th–14th centuries BC part of theArzawakingdom. However, the Lydian language is usually not categorized as part of the Luwic subgroup, unlike the other nearby Anatolian languagesLuwian,Carian,andLycian.[2]

Lydian coins, made of silver, are among the oldest in existence, dated to around the 7th century BC.[3][4]

Portrait ofCroesus,last King of Lydia, Attic red-figure amphora, painted ca. 500–490 BC.

Geography[edit]

The temple ofArtemisinSardis,capital of Lydia
Tripolis on the Meanderis an ancient Lydian city in Turkey.
Büyük Menderes Riveralso known as Maeander is a river in Lydia.

Lydia is generally located east of ancientIoniain the modern westernTurkishprovinces ofUşak,Manisaand inlandIzmir.[1]

The boundaries of historical Lydia varied across the centuries. It was bounded first byMysia,Caria,Phrygiaand coastalIonia.Later, the military power ofAlyattesandCroesusexpanded Lydia, which, with its capital atSardis,controlled all Asia Minor west of the River Halys, exceptLycia.After the Persian conquest the RiverMaeanderwas regarded as its southern boundary, and during imperial Roman times Lydia comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and Phrygia and theAegean Seaon the other.

Language[edit]

TheLydian languagewas anIndo-European language[5]in theAnatolian language family,related toLuwian[6]andHittite.Due to its fragmentary attestation, the meanings of many words are unknown but much of the grammar has been determined. Similar to other Anatolian languages, it featured extensive use ofprefixesandgrammatical particlesto chain clauses together.[7]Lydian had also undergone extensivesyncope,leading to numerous consonant clusters atypical of most Indo-European languages. Lydian finally becameextinctduring the 1st century BC.

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

A substantial portion of Lydia's early history remains shrouded in obscurity. During the late Bronze Age, the region that would later become Lydia belonged to theHittitevassal statesMira-Kuwaliya and theSeha River Land.Due to the absence of literary sources pertaining to western Asia Minor during the "Dark Ages" post-1200 BCE, it is impossible to ascertain precisely when theLydian peopleestablished their presence and achieved a degree of political cohesion, which appears to have materialized around the 9th or 8th century BCE. Although certain literary accounts purport the existence of two early Lydian dynasties, namely the house of Atys - after whose son Lydus the Lydians were supposedly named - and the Heraclids, who allegedly ruled for twenty-two generations from c. 1190 to 685 BCE, these sources are steeped in mythology and lack historical credibility. The only firm evidence for this early period comes from the archaeological excavations at Sardis.[8]

Lydia developed after the decline of theHittite Empirein the 12th century BC. In Hittite times, the name for the region had beenArzawa.According to Greek source, the original name of the Lydian kingdom wasMaionia(Μαιονία), orMaeonia:Homer(Iliadii. 865; v. 43, xi. 431) refers to the inhabitants of Lydia asMaiones(Μαίονες).[9]Homer describes their capital not as Sardis but asHyde(Iliadxx. 385); Hyde may have been the name of the district in which Sardis was located.[10]Later,Herodotus(Historiesi. 7) adds that the "Meiones" were renamed Lydians after their kingLydus(Λυδός), son ofAtys,during the mythical epoch that preceded the Heracleid dynasty. Thisetiologicaleponymserved to account for theGreekethnic nameLydoi(Λυδοί). TheHebrewterm for Lydians,Lûḏîm(לודים), as found in theBook of Jeremiah(46.9), has been similarly considered, beginning withFlavius Josephus,to be derived fromLud son of Shem;[11]however,Hippolytus of Rome(234 AD) offered an alternative opinion that the Lydians were descended fromLudim,son ofMizraim.During Biblical times, the Lydian warriors were famous archers. Some Maeones still existed during historical times in the upland interior along theRiver Hermus,where a town named Maeonia existed, according toPliny the Elder(Natural Historybook v:30) andHierocles(author of Synecdemus).

Autochthonous dynasties[edit]

Main article:List of Kings of Lydia

According toHerodotus,Lydia was ruled by three dynasties from the second millennium BC to 546 BC. The first two dynasties are legendary and the third is historical. Herodotus mentions three early Maeonian kings:Manes,his sonAtysand his grandsonLydus.[12]Lydus gave his name to the country and its people. One of his descendants wasIardanus,with whomHeracleswas in service at one time. Heracles had an affair with one of Iardanus' slave-girls and their sonAlcaeuswas the first of the Lydian Heraclids.[13]

The Maeonians relinquished control to theHeracleidaeand Herodotus says they ruled through 22 generations for a total of 505 years from c. 1192 BC. The first Heraclid king wasAgron,the great-grandson of Alcaeus.[13]He was succeeded by 19 Heraclid kings, names unknown, all succeeding father to son.[13]In the 8th century BC,Melesbecame the 21st and penultimate Heraclid king and the last was his sonCandaules(died c. 687 BC).[14][15]

The Mermnad Empire[edit]

Gyges tablet, British Museum
Gyges[edit]
Main article:Gyges of Lydia

Available historical evidence suggests that Candaules was overthrown by a man named Gyges, of whose origins nothing is known except for the Greek historian Herodotus's claim that he was the son of a man namedDascylus.[16]Gyges was helped in his coup against Candaules by a Carian prince fromMylasanamed Arselis,[17][18]suggesting that Gyges's Mermnad dynasty might have had good relations with Carian aristocrats thanks to which these latter would provide his rebellion with armed support against Candaules.[19]Gyges's rise to power happened in the context of a period of turmoil following the invasion of theCimmerians,a nomadic people from thePontic steppewho had invadedWestern Asia,who around 675 BC destroyed the previous major power in Anatolia, the kingdom of Phrygia.[20]

Gyges took advantage of the power vacuum created by the Cimmerian invasions to consolidate his kingdom and make it a military power, he contacted theNeo-Assyriancourt by sending diplomats toNinevehto seek help against the Cimmerian invasions,[21]and he attacked theIonianGreek cities ofMiletus,Smyrna,andColophon.[20]Gyges's extensive alliances with the Carian dynasts allowed him to recruit Carian and Ionian Greek soldiers to send overseas to assist theEgyptiankingPsamtik Iof the city ofSais,with whom he had established contacts around 662 BC. With the help of these armed forces, Psamtik I united Egypt under his rule after eliminating the eleven other kinglets with whom he had been co-rulingLower Egypt.[17][22][21][18]

In 644 BC, Lydia faced a third attack by the Cimmerians, led by their kingLygdamis.This time, the Lydians were defeated, Sardis was sacked, and Gyges was killed.[22][21]

Ardys and Sadyattes[edit]
Main articles:Ardys of LydiaandSadyattes

Gyges was succeeded by his sonArdys,who resumed diplomatic activity with Assyria and would also have to face the Cimmerians.[22][21]Ardys attacked theIonianGreek city ofMiletusand succeeded in capturing the city ofPriene,after which Priene would remain under direct rule of the Lydian kingdom until its end.[23][19]

Ardys's reign was short-lived,[24]and in 637 BC, that is in Ardys's seventh regnal year, theThracianTrerestribe who had migrated across theThracian Bosporusand invadedAnatolia,[25]under their king Kobos, and in alliance with theCimmeriansand theLycians,attacked Lydia.[21]They defeated the Lydians again and for a second time sacked the Lydian capital ofSardis,except for its citadel. It is probable that Ardys was killed during this Cimmerian attack.[24][26]

Ardys was succeeded by his son, Sadyattes, who had an even more short-lived reign.[24]Sadyattes died in 635 BC, and it is possible that, like his grandfather Gyges and maybe his father Ardys as well, he died fighting theCimmerians.[24]

Alyattes[edit]
Main article:Alyattes of Lydia

Amidst extreme turmoil, Sadyattes was succeeded in 635 BC by his sonAlyattes,who would transform Lydia into a powerful empire.[27][24]

Soon after Alyattes's ascension and early during his reign, withAssyrianapproval[28]and in alliance with the Lydians,[29]theScythiansunder their kingMadyesentered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia[30]until they were themselves expelled by theMedesfrom Western Asia in the 590s BC.[21]This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, whomStrabocredits with expelling the Treres and Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Alyattes, whomHerodotus of HalicarnassusandPolyaenusclaim finally defeated the Cimmerians.[31][32]

Tomb ofAlyattes.

Alyattes turned towardsPhrygiain the east, where extended Lydian rule eastwards to Phrygia.[33]Alyattes continued his expansionist policy in the east, and of all the peoples to the west of the Halys River whom Herodotus claimed Alyattes's successor Croesus ruled over - theLydians,Phrygians,Mysians,Mariandyni,Chalybes,Paphlagonians,ThyniandBithyniThracians,Carians,Ionians,Dorians,Aeolians,andPamphylians- it is very likely that a number of these populations had already been conquered under Alyattes, and it is not impossible that the Lydians might have subjected Lycia, given that the Lycian coast would have been important for the Lydians because it was close to a trade route connecting theAegeanregion, theLevant,andCyprus.[33][34]

Bin Teperoyal funeraltumulus(tomb ofAlyattes,father ofCroesus), Lydia, 6th century BC.
Croesus at the stake. Side A from an Attic red-figure amphora, ca. 500–490 BC
Lydia's borders under the reign of Croesus

Alyattes's eastern conquests brought the Lydian Empire in conflict in the 590s BC with theMedes,[35]and a war broke out between the Median and Lydian Empires in 590 BC which was waged in eastern Anatolia lasted five years, until asolar eclipseoccurred in 585 BC duringa battle(hence called the Battle of the Eclipse) opposing the Lydian and Median armies, which both sides interpreted as an omen to end the war. The Babylonian kingNebuchadnezzar IIand the kingSyennesisofCiliciaacted as mediators in the ensuing peace treaty, which was sealed by the marriage of the Median king Cyaxares's sonAstyageswith Alyattes's daughterAryenis,and the possible wedding of a daughter of Cyaxares with either Alyattes or with his son Croesus.[36][37][33][38]

Croesus[edit]
Main article:Croesus

Alyattes died shortly after the Battle of the Eclipse, in 585 BC itself,[24]following which Lydia faced a power struggle between his son Pantaleon, born from a Greek woman, and his other sonCroesus,born from a Carian noblewoman, out of which the latter emerged successful.[16]

Croesus broughtCariaunder the direct control of the Lydian Empire,[19]and he subjugated all of mainlandIonia,Aeolis,andDoris,but he abandoned his plans of anne xing the Greek city-states on the islands of theAegean Seaand he instead concluded treaties of friendship with them, which might have helped him participate in the lucrative trade the Aegean Greeks carried out with Egypt atNaucratis.[19]According to Herodotus, Croesus ruled over all the peoples to the west of the Halys River, although the actual border of his kingdom was further to the east of the Halys, at an undetermined point in eastern Anatolia.[36][37][33][39][40]

Croesus continued the friendly relations with theMedesconcluded between his father Alyattes and the Median kingCyaxares,and he continued these good relations with the Medes after he succeeded Alyattes and Astyages succeeded Cyaxares.[33]And, under Croesus's rule, Lydia continued its good relations started by Gyges with theSaiteEgyptian kingdom, then ruled by thepharaohAmasis II.[33]Croesus also established trade and diplomatic relations with theNeo-Babylonian EmpireofNabonidus,[33]and he further increased his contacts with the Greeks on the European continent by establishing relations with the city-state ofSparta.[19]

In 550 BC, Croesus's brother-in-law, the Median king Astyages, was overthrown by his own grandson, the Persian kingCyrus the Great,[33]and Croesus responded by attackingPteria,the capital of a Phrygian state vassal to the Lydians which might have attempted to declare its allegiance to the new Persian Empire of Cyrus. Cyrus retaliated by intervening in Cappadocia and defeated the Lydians at Pteria in abattle,and againat Thymbrabeforebesiegingand capturing the Lydian capital ofSardis,thus bringing an end to the rule of the Mermnad dynasty and to the Lydian Empire. Lydia would never regain its independence and would remain a part of various successive empires.[33]

Although the dates for the battles of Pteria and Thymbra and of end of the Lydian empire have been traditionally fixed to 547 BC,[41]more recent estimates suggest that Herodotus's account being unreliable chronologically concerning the fall of Lydia means that there are currently no ways of dating the end of the Lydian kingdom; theoretically, it may even have taken place after the fall ofBabylonin 539 BC.[41][42]

Persian Empire[edit]

Main article:Lydia (satrapy)
Lydia, including Ionia, during the Achaemenid Empire.
Xerxes Itomb, Lydian soldier of theAchaemenid army,circa 480 BC

In 547 BC, the Lydian kingCroesusbesieged and captured the Persian city ofPteriainCappadociaand enslaved its inhabitants. The Persian kingCyrus The Greatmarched with his army against the Lydians. TheBattle of Pteriaresulted in a stalemate, forcing the Lydians to retreat to their capital city of Sardis. Some months later the Persian and Lydian kings met at theBattle of Thymbra.Cyrus won and captured the capital city of Sardis by 546 BC.[43]Lydia became a province (satrapy) of the Persian Empire.

Hellenistic Empire[edit]

Lydia remained a satrapy after Persia's conquest by the Macedonian kingAlexander III(the Great) ofMacedon.

When Alexander's empire ended after his death, Lydia was possessed by the major Asian diadoch dynasty, theSeleucids,and when it was unable to maintain its territory in Asia Minor, Lydia was acquired by theAttaliddynasty ofPergamum.Its last king avoided the spoils and ravage of a Roman war of conquest by leaving the realm by testament to theRoman Empire.

Roman province of Asia[edit]

Roman province of Asia
Photo of a 15th-century map showing Lydia

When the Romans entered the capital Sardis in 133 BC, Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy, became part of theprovince of Asia,a very richRoman province,worthy of a governor with the high rank ofproconsul.The whole west of Asia Minor hadJewishcolonies very early, and Christianity was also soon present there.Acts of the Apostles16:14–15 mentions the baptism of a merchant woman called "Lydia" fromThyatira,known asLydia of Thyatira,in what had once been the satrapy of Lydia.Christianityspread rapidly during the 3rd century AD, based on the nearby Exarchate of Ephesus.

Roman province of Lydia[edit]

Lydia circa 50 AD

Under thetetrarchyreform of EmperorDiocletianin 296 AD, Lydia was revived as the name of a separate Roman province, much smaller than the former satrapy, with its capital at Sardis.

Together with the provinces ofCaria,Hellespontus,Lycia,Pamphylia,Phrygia primaandPhrygia secunda,Pisidia(all in modern Turkey) and the Insulae (Ionian islands,mostly in modern Greece), it formed thediocese(under avicarius) ofAsiana,which was part of thepraetorian prefectureof Oriens, together with the diocesesPontiana(most of the rest of Asia Minor), Oriens proper (mainly Syria), Aegyptus (Egypt) andThraciae(on the Balkans, roughly Bulgaria).

Byzantine (and Crusader) age[edit]

Under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610–641), Lydia became part ofAnatolikon,one of the originalthemata,and later ofThrakesion.Although theSeljuk Turksconquered most of the rest of Anatolia, forming theSultanate of Ikonion(Konya), Lydia remained part of the Byzantine Empire. While the Venetians occupied Constantinople and Greece as a result of theFourth Crusade,Lydia continued as a part of the Byzantinerump statecalled theNicene Empirebased atNicaeauntil 1261.

Under Turkish rule[edit]

Lydia was captured finally by Turkishbeyliks,which were all absorbed by theOttomanstate in 1390. The area became part of the OttomanAidin Vilayet(province), and is now in the modern republic ofTurkey.

Legacy[edit]

First coinage[edit]

Early 6th century BC Lydian electrum coin (one-third stater denomination).
See also:Croeseid

According toHerodotus,the Lydians were the first people to use gold and silvercoinsand the first to establish retail shops in permanent locations.[44]It is not known, however, whether Herodotus meant that the Lydians were the first to use coins of pure gold and pure silver or the first precious metal coins in general.[45]Despite this ambiguity, this statement of Herodotus is one of the pieces of evidence most often cited on behalf of the argument that Lydians invented coinage, at least in the West, although the first coins (underAlyattes I,reigned c.591–c.560 BC) were neither gold nor silver but an alloy of the two calledelectrum.[46]

The dating of these first stamped coins is one of the most frequently debated topics of ancient numismatics,[47]with dates ranging from 700 BC to 550 BC, but the most common opinion is that they were minted at or near the beginning of the reign of King Alyattes (sometimes referred to incorrectly as Alyattes II).[48][49]The first coins were made ofelectrum,analloyof gold and silver that occurs naturally but that was further debased by the Lydians with added silver and copper.[50]

Croeseids
Gold Croeseid, minted by kingCroesuscirca 561–546 BC. (10.7 grams,Sardismint).
Silver Croeseid, minted by king Croesus, circa 560–546 BC (10.7 grams, Sardis mint)
The gold and silver Croeseids formed the world's firstbimetallic monetary systemcirca 550 BC.[51]

The largest of these coins are commonly referred to as a 1/3stater(trite) denomination, weighing around 4.7 grams, though no full staters of this type have ever been found, and the 1/3 stater probably should be referred to more correctly as a stater, after a type of a transversely held scale, the weights used in such a scale (from ancient Greek ίστημι=to stand), which also means "standard."[52]These coins were stamped with a lion's head adorned with what is likely a sunburst, which was the king's symbol.[53]The most prolific mint for early electrum coins was Sardis which produced large quantities of the lion head thirds, sixths and twelfths along with lion paw fractions.[54]To complement the largest denomination, fractions were made, including ahekte(sixth),hemihekte(twelfth), and so forth down to a 96th, with the 1/96 stater weighing only about 0.15 grams. There is disagreement, however, over whether the fractions below the twelfth are actually Lydian.[55]

Alyattes' son wasCroesus(Reigned c.560–c.546 BC), who became associated with great wealth. Croesus is credited with issuing theCroeseid,the first truegold coinswith a standardised purity for general circulation,[51]and the world's firstbimetallic monetary systemcirca 550 BC.[51]

It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.[56]The first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol,Ancient Greek coinageminted inCyme (Aeolis)underHermodike IIthen by theIonian Greeksin the late sixth century BC.[57]

Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, near the beginning of his reign, Croesus paid for the construction of thetemple of ArtemisatEphesus,which became one of theSeven Wonders of the ancient world.Croesus was defeated in battle byCyrus IIof Persiain 546 BC, with the Lydian kingdom losing its autonomy and becoming a Persiansatrapy.

In Greek mythology[edit]

For the Greeks,Tantaluswas a primordial ruler of mythic Lydia, andNiobehis proud daughter; her husbandAmphionassociated Lydia withThebesin Greece, and throughPelopsthe line of Tantalus was part of thefounding mythsofMycenae's second dynasty. (In reference to the myth ofBellerophon,Karl Kerenyi remarked, inThe Heroes of The Greeks1959, p. 83. "AsLykiawas thus connected withCrete,and as the person ofPelops,the hero of Olympia, connected Lydia with the Peloponnesos, so Bellerophontes connected another Asian country, or rather two, Lykia andKaria,with the kingdom ofArgos".)

ThePactolusriver, from which Lydia obtainedelectrum,a combination of silver and gold.

In Greek myth, Lydia had also adopted the double-axe symbol, that also appears in the Mycenaean civilization, thelabrys.[58]Omphale,daughter of the river Iardanos, was a ruler of Lydia, whomHeracleswas required to serve for a time. His adventures in Lydia are the adventures of a Greek hero in a peripheral and foreign land: during his stay, Heracles enslaved the Itones; killed Syleus, who forced passers-by to hoe his vineyard; slew theserpentof the river Sangarios (which appears in the heavens as the constellationOphiucus)[59]and captured the simian tricksters, theCercopes.Accounts tell of at least one son of Heracles who was born to either Omphale or a slave-girl: Herodotus (Historiesi. 7) says this wasAlcaeuswho began the line of LydianHeracleidaewhich ended with the death ofCandaulesc. 687 BC.Diodorus Siculus(4.31.8) andOvid(Heroides9.54) mentions a son called Lamos, while pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheke2.7.8) gives the name Agelaus andPausanias(2.21.3) names Tyrsenus as the son of Heracles by "the Lydian woman". All three heroic ancestors indicate a Lydian dynasty claiming Heracles as their ancestor. Herodotus (1.7) refers to a Heraclid dynasty of kings who ruled Lydia, yet were perhaps not descended from Omphale. He also mentions (1.94) the legend that theEtruscan civilizationwas founded by colonists from Lydia led byTyrrhenus,brother of Lydus.Dionysius of Halicarnassuswas skeptical of this story, indicating that theEtruscan languageand customs were known to be totally dissimilar to those of the Lydians. In addition, the story of the "Lydian" origins of the Etruscans was not known toXanthus of Lydia,an authority on the history of the Lydians.[60]

Later chronologists ignored Herodotus' statement thatAgronwas the first Heraclid to be a king, and included his immediate forefathers Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their list of kings of Lydia. Strabo (5.2.2) has Atys, father of Lydus and Tyrrhenus, as a descendant of Heracles and Omphale but that contradicts virtually all other accounts which name Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus among the pre-Heraclid kings and princes of Lydia. The gold deposits in the riverPactolusthat were the source of the proverbial wealth ofCroesus(Lydia's last king) were said to have been left there when the legendary kingMidasofPhrygiawashed away the "Midas touch" in its waters. InEuripides' tragedyThe Bacchae,Dionysus,while maintaining his human disguise, declares his country to be Lydia.[61]

Lydians, the Tyrrhenians and the Etruscans[edit]

Main article:Origins of the Etruscans

The relationship between theEtruscansof northern and central Italy and the Lydians has long been a subject of conjecture. The Greek historianHerodotusbelieved they came from Lydia, butDionysius of Halicarnassus,a 1st-century BC historian, argued that the Etruscans were indigenous to Italy and unrelated to the Lydians.[62]Dionysius pointed out that the 5th-century historianXanthus of Lydia,who was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never linked the Etruscans to Lydia or mentioned Tyrrhenus as a Lydian ruler.[62]

In contemporary scholarship, Etruscologists overwhelmingly support an indigenous origin for the Etruscans,[63][64]dismissing Herodotus' account as based on erroneous etymologies.[65]Michael Grantargue that the Etruscans may have propagated this narrative to facilitate their trading in Asia Minor, when many cities in Asia Minor, and the Etruscans themselves, were at war with the Greeks.[66]The French scholarDominique Briquelcontends that "the story of an exodus from Lydia to Italy was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th century BC."[67][68]Ultimately, these Greek-authored accounts of the Etruscan origins are only the expression of the image that Etruscans' allies or adversaries wanted to divulge and should not be considered historical.[69]

Archaeological evidence does not support the idea of Lydian migration to Etruria.[63][64]The Etruscan civilization's earliest phase, theVillanovan culture,emerged around 900 BC,[70][71][72][73][74]which itself developed from the previousProto-Villanovan cultureof Italy in the lateBronze Age.[75]This culture has no ties to Asia Minor or the Near East.[76]Linguists have identified anEtruscan-like languagein aset of inscriptionsonLemnosisland, in the Aegean Sea. Since theEtruscan languagewas aPre-Indo-European languageand neither Indo-European or Semitic,[77]Etruscan was not related toLydian,which was a part of theAnatolianbranch of the Indo-European languages.[77]Instead, Etruscan language is considered part of the pre-Indo-EuropeanTyrrhenian language family,along with theLemnianandRhaetian language.[78]

A 2013 genetic study suggested that the maternal lineages of western Anatolians and modern Tuscans had been largely separate for 5,000 to 10,000 years, with EtruscanmtDNAclosely resembling modern Tuscans and NeolithicCentral Europeanpopulations. This suggests Etruscans descended from theVillanovan culture,[79][80]indicating their indigenous roots, and a link between Etruria, modern Tuscany, and Lydia dating back to theNeolithic periodduring the migration ofEarly European Farmersfrom Anatolia to Europe.[79][80]A 2019 genetic study revealed that Etruscans (900–600 BC) andLatins(900–500 BC) fromLatium vetusshared genetic similarities, with both groups having a mixture of two-thirdsCopper Ageancestry and one-thirdSteppe-related ancestry.This study also suggested indigenous origins for the Etruscans, despite their pre-Indo-European language.[81]

A 2021 study confirmed these findings, showing that Etruscans and Latins in the Iron Age had similar genetic profiles and were part of the European cluster. The Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Etruscans exhibited a blend of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry, with 75% of males belonging tohaplogroup R1band the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup beingH.[82]

Culture and society[edit]

Religion[edit]

Early Lydian religion[edit]

Main article:Lydian religion

The Lydians in early Antiquity adhered to a religion which remains marginally attested due to the known sources covering it being largely of Greek origin, while Lydian inscriptions regarding religion are small in number[83]and no Lydian corpus of ritual texts like the Hittite ritual tablets have been recovered.[84]

Despite the small size of the recorded Lydian corpus, the various inscriptions relating to religion date fromc. 650toc. 330-325 BC,thus covering the period beginning with the establishment of the Mermnad dynasty under Gyges and ending with the aftermath of the Macedonian conquest under Alexander III and the beginning of the Hellenistic period.[85]Based on limited evidence, Lydian religious practices were centred around the fertility of nature, as was common among ancient societies which depended on the successful cultivation of land.[84]

The early Lydian religion exhibited strong connections toAnatolianas well asGreektraditions,[83]and its pantheon was composed of native Lydian deities who were reflexes of earlier Aegean-Balkan ones, as well asAnatoliandeities, the latter of whom held lesser roles.[86]

Although Lydia had been conquered by the Achaemenid Empire inc. 547 BC,native Lydian traditions were not destroyed by Persian rule, and most Lydian inscriptions were written during this period.[87]

The Lydian religion waspolytheisticin nature and was composed of a number of deities:[83]

  • unlike traditionally Anatolian pantheons but similarly to thePhrygianone, the Lydian pantheon was headed by the goddess Artimus (𐤠𐤭𐤯𐤦𐤪𐤰𐤮), who was a deity of wild nature as well as the Lydian variant of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose other reflexes included the GreekArtemis(Αρτεμις)[88]and the Phrygian Artimis:[89]Artimus is the most well-attested Lydian deities both in the Lydian corpus and archaeologically;[90][91]
  • the identity of the figure of Qaλdãns or Qaλiyãns (𐤲𐤷𐤣𐤵𐤫𐤮) is still uncertain, and has been variously interpreted as the Lydian king of the gods,[88]or a Moon-god who was the main masculine deity of the Lydian pantheon and the consort of Artimus,[92]or the Lydian equivalent of the Greek godApollo(Απολλων),[93]or a high status or royal title;[93]
  • the Lydian equivalent of the Greek godZeus(Ζευς) and the Phrygian god Tiws was Lews (𐤩𐤤𐤥𐤮) or Lefs (𐤩𐤤𐤱𐤮):[88][92]Unlike the Anatolian storm-godTarḫuntas,Lews held a less prominent role in the Lydian religion,[92]although his role as the bringer of rain followed the tradition surrounding the Anatolian Tarḫuntas;[94]
  • the goddess Lamẽtrus (𐤩𐤠𐤪𐤶𐤯𐤭𐤰𐤮) was the Lydian reflex of an earlier Aegean-Balkan goddess whose Greek iteration wasDēmētēr(Δημητηρ);[88][92]
  • the frenzy god Pakiš (𐤡𐤠𐤨𐤦𐤳) to whom was performed anorgiastic cultwas also a Lydian variant of an older Aegean-Balkan god whose Greek reflex wasBakkhos(Βακχος);[88][92]
  • the goddess Kufaws (𐤨𐤰𐤱𐤠𐤥𐤮) or Kuwaws (𐤨𐤰𐤥𐤠𐤥𐤮), referred by the Greeks asKubēbē(Κυβηβη),[95][96]was a young[97]goddess ofdivine frenzy,[98]as well as a prominent Lydian deity possessing an important temple in Sardis;[99][100]
  • the existence of the goddess Korē (Κορη) is attested only during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, when the festival of Khrysanthina (Χρυσανθινα) was celebrated at Sardis in her honour,[84]and she appears to have had some vegetative aspects;[84]
  • the god Sãntas (𐤮𐤵𐤫𐤯𐤠𐤮), whose name corresponds to that of the LuwianŠandas(𔖶𔖖𔗎𔗏𔑶𔑯𔗔𔖶‎),[101]might have been the consort of Kufaws;[89]
    • accompanying Sãntas were several lesser demon-like figures called the Mariwdas (𐤪𐤠𐤭𐤦𐤥𐤣𐤠𐤮),[88][92]who were the Lydian equivalent of the deities attested in Hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions as theMarwainzi(𔖖𔗎𔗏𔘅𔖱𔗬𔓯𔖩𔓯𔖶‎);[102]
  • the goddess Maλiš (𐤪𐤠𐤷𐤦𐤳), who corresponded to the Anatolian goddessMaliya,attested inHittiteasᴰMāliya(𒀭𒈠𒀀𒇷𒅀) and Lycian asMaliya(𐊎𐊀𐊍𐊆𐊊𐊀),[103][104]possessed a vegetative aspect,[84]being a goddess of vegetation, especially of wine and corn.[104]

Because of a lack of evidence, little is known on the organisation of Lydian cults.[105]

Due to the meagre evidence for Lydian religious spaces, little is known about their shapes, sizes, administration, and location:[105]Lydian cultic spaces ranged from small places of worship to prestigious temples of the state cult which also had a political role,[105]although the evidence for them dates from after the end of Lydian independence,[83]while those from the Lydian empire are primarily known from Greek literature rather than from archaeological evidence.[87]

The early Lydian religion possessed at least three cultic officiants, consisting of:[106]

  • kawes(𐤨𐤠𐤥𐤤𐤮), who were priests and priestesses;
  • šiwraλmi-(𐤳𐤦𐤥𐤭𐤠𐤷𐤪𐤦-), who were involved in the cult of Artimus;
  • armτas(𐤠𐤭𐤪𐤴𐤠𐤮), who might have been prophets.

In addition to these clerical offices, the religious role of the kings among other Anatolian peoples suggests that Lydiankingswere alsoreligious high functionarieswho participated in the cult as a representative of divine power on earth and claimed their legitimacy to rule from the gods. Anatolian and Hellenistic Greek parallels also suggest that Lydian kings might have been deified after their deaths.[93]

Christianity[edit]

Lydia later had numerous Christian communities and, afterChristianitybecame theofficial religionof the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Lydia became one of the provinces of the diocese of Asia in thePatriarchate of Constantinople.

The ecclesiastical province of Lydia had a metropolitan diocese atSardisand suffragan dioceses forPhiladelphia,Thyatira,Tripolis,Settae,Gordus,Tralles,Silandus,Maeonia,Apollonos Hierum,Mostene,Apollonias,Attalia,Hyrcania,Bage,Balandus,Hermocapella,Hierocaesarea,Acrassus,Dalda,Stratonicia,Cerasa,Gabala,Satala,AureliopolisandHellenopolis.Bishops from the various dioceses of Lydia were well represented at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and at the later ecumenical councils.[107]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^tūran

References[edit]

  1. ^abRhodes, P.J.A History of the Classical Greek World 478–323 BC.2nd edition. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p. 6.
  2. ^I. Yakubovich, Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language, Leiden: Brill, 2010, p. 6
  3. ^"Lydia" inOxford Dictionary of English.Oxford University Press,2010. Oxford Reference Online. 14 October 2011.
  4. ^"The origins of coinage".britishmuseum.org. Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2015.Retrieved21 September2015.
  5. ^Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (1983).The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.Manchester University Press. p. 50...confirmed by an analysis of the Lydian language, which is Indo-European..
  6. ^Mouton, Alice; Rutherford, Ian; Yakubovich, Ilya, eds. (2013).Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the.Brill. p. 4.Although the Lydian language is only distantly related to Luwian...
  7. ^"Lydia – All About Turkey".Allaboutturkey.
  8. ^Payne, Annick."The Lydian Empire".
  9. ^As for the etymologies ofLydiaandMaionia,see H. Craig Melchert"Greekmólybdosas a Loanword from Lydian "Archived2013-12-31 at theWayback Machine,University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,pp. 3, 4, 11 (fn. 5).
  10. ^See Strabo xiii.626.
  11. ^Calmet, Augustin (1832).Dictionary of the Holy Bible.Crocker and Brewster. p. 648.
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  13. ^abcHerodotus 1975,p. 43.
  14. ^Herodotus 1975,pp. 43–46.
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Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Iranicaonline.org

External links[edit]

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