Lyndon B. Johnson

"Lyndon Johnson" and "LBJ" redirect here. For the American football player, seeLyndon Johnson (American football).For other uses, seeLBJ (disambiguation).

Lyndon B. Johnson
Official portrait, 1964
36thPresident of the United States
In office November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969
Vice President	None(1963–1965) Hubert Humphrey(1965–1969)
Preceded by	John F. Kennedy
Succeeded by	Richard Nixon
37thVice President of the United States
In office January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963
President	John F. Kennedy
Preceded by	Richard Nixon
Succeeded by	Hubert Humphrey
United States Senator fromTexas
In office January 3, 1949 – January 3, 1961
Preceded by	W. Lee O'Daniel
Succeeded by	William A. Blakley
Senate positions Senate Majority Leader In office January 3, 1955 – January 3, 1961 Whip Earle C. Clements Mike Mansfield Preceded by William F. Knowland Succeeded by Mike Mansfield Senate Minority Leader In office January 3, 1953 – January 3, 1955 Whip Earle C. Clements Preceded by Styles Bridges Succeeded by William F. Knowland Chair of the Senate Democratic Caucus In office January 3, 1953 – January 3, 1961 Preceded by Ernest McFarland Succeeded by Mike Mansfield Senate Majority Whip In office January 3, 1951 – January 3, 1953 Leader Ernest McFarland Preceded by Francis J. Myers Succeeded by Leverett Saltonstall
Member of theU.S. House of Representatives from Texas's10thdistrict
In office April 10, 1937 – January 3, 1949
Preceded by	James P. Buchanan
Succeeded by	Homer Thornberry
Personal details
Born	Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908-08-27)August 27, 1908 Gillespie County, Texas,U.S.
Died	January 22, 1973(1973-01-22)(aged 64) Gillespie County, Texas, U.S.
Resting place	Johnson Family Cemetery
Political party	Democratic
Spouse	Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor ​ ​ (m.1934)​
Children	Lynda Luci
Parent	Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr.(father)
Relatives	George Washington Baines(great-grandfather) Philip Bobbitt(nephew)
Education	Southwest Texas State Teachers College(BS)
Occupation	Politician teacher
Civilian awards	Presidential Medal of Freedom(posthumously, 1980)
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	United States
Branch/service	United States Navy
Years of service	1940–1941 (inactive) 1941–1942 (active) 1942–1964 (reserve)
Rank	Commander
Battles/wars	World War II Salamaua–Lae campaign
Military awards	Silver Star

Lyndon Baines Johnson(/ˈlɪndənˈbeɪnz/;August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to asLBJ,was an American politician who served as the 36thpresident of the United Statesfrom 1963 to 1969. He became president afterthe assassinationofJohn F. Kennedy,under whom he had served as the 37thvice presidentfrom 1961 to 1963. ADemocratfromTexas,Johnson also served as aU.S. representativeandU.S. senator.

Born inStonewall, Texas,Johnson worked as a teacher and a congressional aide before winning election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1937. In 1948, he was controversially declared the winner in the Democratic Party's primary for the1948 Senate election in Texasand won the general election.He becameSenate majority whipin 1951, Senate Democratic leader in 1953 and majority leader in 1954. Senator Kennedy bested Johnson and his other rivals for the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination before surprising many by offering to make Johnson his vice presidential running mate. The Kennedy–Johnson ticket wonthe general election.Vice President Johnson assumed the presidency in 1963, after President Kennedy was assassinated. The following year, Johnson waselected to the presidency in a landslide,winning the largest share of the popular vote for the Democratic Party in history, and the highest for any candidate since the advent of widespread popular elections in the 1820s.

Johnson'sGreat Societywas aimed at expanding civil rights, public broadcasting, access to health care, aid to education and the arts, urban and rural development, and public services. He sought to create better living conditions for low-income Americans by spearheading thewar on poverty.As part of these efforts, Johnson signed theSocial Security Amendments of 1965,which resulted in the creation ofMedicareandMedicaid.Johnson made theApollo programa national priority; enacted theHigher Education Act of 1965,which established federally insured student loans; and signed theImmigration and Nationality Act of 1965,which laid the groundwork for U.S. immigration policy today. Johnson's stance on civil rights put him at odds with other white, Southern Democrats. His civil rights legacy was shaped by theCivil Rights Act of 1964,theVoting Rights Act of 1965,and theCivil Rights Act of 1968.Due to his domestic agenda, Johnson's presidency marked the peak ofmodern American liberalismin the 20th century.Johnson's foreign policy prioritizedcontainmentof communism, including in the ongoingVietnam War.

Johnson began his presidency with near-universal support, but his approval declined throughout his presidency as the public became frustrated with both the Vietnam War and domestic unrest, includingrace riots in major citiesand increasing crime. Johnson initially sought to run for re-election; however, followingdisappointing results in the New Hampshire primaryhewithdrew his candidacy.Johnson retired to his Texas ranch and died in 1973. Public opinion and academic assessments of Johnson's legacy have fluctuated greatly. Historians and scholarsrank Johnson in the upper tierfor his accomplishments regarding domestic policy. His administration passed many major laws that made substantial changes in civil rights, health care, welfare, and education. Conversely, Johnson is heavily criticized for his foreign policy, namely escalating American involvement in the Vietnam War.

Early life

A seven-year-old Johnson, wearing his trademark cowboy hat, at his childhood farmhouse nearStonewall, Texas,in 1915

Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, nearStonewall, Texas,in a small farmhouse on thePedernales River.He was the eldest of five children born toSamuel Ealy Johnson Jr.and Rebekah Baines.Johnson wasn't given a name until he was three months old, as his parents couldn't agree on a name that both liked. Finally, he was named after "criminal lawyer—a county lawyer" W. C. Linden, who his father liked; his mother agreed on the condition of spelling it as Lyndon.Johnson had one brother,Sam Houston Johnson,and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia.Through his mother, he was a great-grandson ofBaptistclergymanGeorge Washington Baines.

Johnson's paternal grandfather,Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr.,was raised Baptist and for a time was a member of theChristian Church (Disciples of Christ).In his later years, Samuel Sr. became aChristadelphian;Samuel Jr. also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life.Johnson was influenced in his positive attitude toward Jews by the religious beliefs thathis family,especially his grandfather, had shared with him.

Johnson grew up poor, with his father losing a great deal of money.BiographerRobert Carodescribed him as being raised "in a land without electricity, where the soil was so rocky that it was hard to earn a living from it."

In school, Johnson was a talkative youth who was elected president of his 11th-grade class. He graduated in 1924 fromJohnson City High School,where he participated inpublic speaking,debate,andbaseball.At 15, Johnson was the youngest in his class. Pressured by his parents to attend college, he enrolled at a "sub college" ofSouthwest Texas State Teachers College(SWTSTC) in the summer of 1924, where students from unaccredited high schools could take the 12th-grade courses needed for admission to college. He left the school just weeks after his arrival and decided to move to California. He worked at his cousin's legal practice and in odd jobs before returning to Texas, where he worked as a day laborer.

In 1926, Johnson enrolled at SWTSTC. He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, and edited the school newspaper,The College Star.The college years refined his skills of persuasion and political organization. For nine months, from 1928 to 1929, Johnson paused his studies to teachMexican–Americanchildren at the segregated Welhausen School inCotulla, Texas,90 miles (140 km) south ofSan Antonio.The job helped him to save money to complete his education, and he graduated in 1930 with a Bachelor of Science in history and his certificate of qualification as a high school teacher.He briefly taught at Pearsall High School inPearsall, Texasbefore taking a position teaching public speaking atSam Houston High Schoolin Houston.

When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after signing theHigher Education Act of 1965,Johnson reminisced:

I shall never forget the faces of the boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American.

Entry into politics

AfterRichard M. Klebergwon a 1931 special election to represent Texas in theUnited States House of Representatives,he appointed Johnson as his legislative secretary. This marked Johnson's formal introduction to politics. Johnson secured the position on the recommendation of his father and that of state senator Welly Hopkins, for whom Johnson had campaigned in 1930.Kleberg had little interest in the day-to-day duties of a Congressman, instead delegating them to Johnson.AfterFranklin D. Rooseveltwon the1932 U.S. presidential election,Johnson became a lifelong supporter of Roosevelt'sNew Deal.Johnson was elected speaker of the "Little Congress", a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen, and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President Roosevelt as well as fellow Texans such as vice presidentJohn Nance Garnerand congressmanSam Rayburn.

In 1935, Johnson was appointed head of the TexasNational Youth Administration,which enabled him to create government-funded education and job opportunities for young people. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. A notoriously tough Boss, Johnson often demanded long workdays and work on weekends.He was described by friends, fellow politicians, and historians as motivated by lust for power and control. As Caro observes, "Johnson's ambition was uncommon – in the degree to which it was unencumbered by even the slightest excess weight of ideology, of philosophy, of principles, of beliefs."

U.S. House of Representatives (1937–1949)

PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt(left), Texas governorJames Burr V Allred(center), and Johnson (right) in 1937; Johnson later used an edited version of this photo with Allred airbrushed out in his1941 senatorial campaign.

In 1937, after the death of 13-term congressmanJames P. Buchanan,Johnson successfully campaigned in a special election forTexas's 10th congressional district,which includedAustinand the surroundingTexas Hill Country.He ran on aNew Dealplatform and was effectively aided by his wife. He served as a U.S. Representative from April 10, 1937, to January 3, 1949.President Roosevelt found Johnson to be a political allyand conduit for information, particularly regarding the internal politics of Texas and the machinations of Vice PresidentJohn Nance GarnerandHouse SpeakerSam Rayburn.Johnson was immediately appointed to theNaval Affairs Committee.He worked hard forrural electrification,getting approval to complete the hydroelectricMansfield Damon theColorado Rivernear Austin.Johnson also sponsored projects that gave his Texas districtsoil conservation,public housing,lowerrailroad freight rates,and expanded credit for loans to farmers.He steered the projects towards contractors he knew, such asHerman and George Brown,who financed much of Johnson's future career.

During this time Johnson maintained a hostile position towardscivil rightslegislation like almost all other Southern Democrat legislators; voting against anti-lynchinglegislation, anti-poll taxlegislation and theFair Employment Practice Committee.

1941 U.S. Senate election

Main article:1941 United States Senate special election in Texas

In April 1941, incumbentU.S. SenatorMorris Sheppardfrom Texas died. Under Texas law, aspecial electionfor a vacant Senate seat must be held within a few months of the vacancy, meaning that the election would not be held during a normal November election, giving Johnson the chance to run without forfeiting his seat in the House.The election would be held without party primaries, and with no runoff, meaning that Johnson would have to compete against every Democrat — without the chance of facing the frontrunner, Governor W. Lee "Pappy" O’Daniel, in a 1-on-1 runoff election.The first pre-election polls showed Johnson receiving only 5% of the vote, but Johnson ran a fierce campaign, barnstorming the state and emphasizing his close relationship with President Roosevelt.

On Election Day, Johnson held a strong lead in the returns throughout the whole night, and with 96 percent of the ballots counted, Johnson held a 5,000-vote lead.According to John Connally, future Governor and Johnson's campaign manager, local election officials began calling Connally's office and asking him about whether they should report the vote tallies.Connally told them to report the votes, which allegedly allowed O'Daniel's political allies among theSouthandEast Texasparty Boss es to know the exact number of fraudulent votes needed for O'Daniel to catch up to Johnson.According to Connally,

The opposition then ‍— Governor O'Daniel and his people ‍— knew exactly how many votes they had to have to take the lead... They kept changing the results, and our lead got smaller and smaller and smaller. Finally, on Wednesday afternoon, we wound up on the short side of the stick and lost the election by 1,311 votes. I'm basically responsible for losing that 1941 campaign. We let them know exactly how many votes they had to have.

In addition to O'Daniel's allies, state business interests aligned with former impeached and convicted Texas Governor "Pa" Ferguson had been concerned with O'Daniel's support of prohibition as Governor; they believed that he could do much less damage to their cause in the Senate.The lieutenant governor,Coke R. Stevenson,was not in favor of prohibition, making his possible promotion to Governor a key selling point for the state's business interests in manipulating the election results.In the final vote tally, Johnson fell short by just 0.23% of the vote.

While Johnson's loss in the 1941 Senate race was a stinging defeat, he did not have to give up his seat in the House, which permitted him to maintain numerous allies, includingGeorge Berham Parr,who ran a political machine in theLower Rio Grande Valleyin South Texas.U.S. SenatorW. Lee O'Danielbecame unpopular during his time in the Senate, and decided to forgo a bid for re-election in 1948,so Johnson began preparing for a close Senate runoff by arranging for his supporters who controlled votes, including Parr, to withhold their final tallies until the statewide results were announced.By waiting until the statewide result was reported, Johnson was able to know the figure he had to surpass and so could add as many votes as necessary to his total.It would prove consequential, as Johnson would win the Democratic primary in 1948 by just 87 votes.

Active military duty (1941–1942)

Johnson as a lieutenant commander in theU.S. Naval Reservein March 1942

Johnson was appointed alieutenant commanderin theU.S. Naval Reserveon June 21, 1940. While serving as a U.S. representative, he was called to active duty three days after the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harborin December 1941. His first orders were to report to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations inWashington, D.C.,for instruction and training.Following his training, Johnson askedUndersecretary of the NavyJames Forrestalfor a job in Washington, D.C. He was instead sent to inspect shipyard facilities in Texas and on theWest Coast.In the spring of 1942, President Roosevelt decided he needed better information on conditions in theSouthwest Pacific,and wanted a trusted political ally to obtain it. Forrestal suggested Johnson. Roosevelt assigned Johnson to a three-man survey team covering the Southwest Pacific.

Johnson reported to GeneralDouglas MacArthurin Australia. Johnson and twoU.S. Armyofficers went to the22nd Bomb Groupbase, which was assigned the high-risk mission of bombing the Japanese airbase atLaeinNew Guinea.On June 9, 1942, Johnson volunteered as an observer for an airstrike on New Guinea. Reports vary on what happened to the aircraft carrying Johnson during that mission. MacArthur recommended Johnson for theSilver Starfor gallantry in action;the citation indicated that the mission came under attack and Johnson's aircraft experienced mechanical problems, forcing it to turn back before reaching its objective.Others claim that the aircraft turned back because of generator trouble before encountering enemy aircraft and never came under fire, an account that is supported by the aircraft's official flight records.Other airplanes that continued came under fire near the target about the same time Johnson's plane was recorded as having landed back at the original airbase.Johnson's biographer Robert Caro was quoted as saying "I think that the weight of the evidence at this moment is that the plane was attacked by Zeroes and that he was cool under fire",but also "The fact is, LBJ never got within sight of Japanese forces. His combat experience was a myth."

Johnson used a movie camera to record conditions,and reported to Roosevelt, Navy leaders, and Congress that conditions were deplorable and unacceptable. Some historians have suggested this was in exchange for MacArthur's recommendation to award the Silver Star.He argued that the southwest Pacific urgently needed a higher priority and a larger share of war supplies. Warplanes that were sent there were "far inferior" to Japanese planes, and U.S. Navy morale there was poor. Johnson told Forrestal that the Pacific Fleet had a "critical" need for 6,800 additional experienced men. Johnson prepared a twelve-point program to upgrade the effort in the region, stressing "greater cooperation and coordination within the various commands and between the different war theaters". Congress responded by making Johnson chairman of a high-powered subcommittee of the Naval Affairs Committee,with a mission similar to that of theTruman Committeein the Senate. He probed the peacetime "business as usual" inefficiencies that permeated the naval war and demanded that admirals get the job done. Johnson went too far when he proposed a bill that would crack down on the draft exemptions of shipyard workers if they were absent from work too often; organized labor blocked the bill and denounced him. Johnson's biographerRobert Dallekconcludes, "The mission was a temporary exposure to danger calculated to satisfy Johnson's personal and political wishes, but it also represented a genuine effort on his part, however misplaced, to improve the lot of America's fighting men."

In addition to the Silver Star, Johnson received theAmerican Campaign Medal,Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal,and theWorld War II Victory Medal.He was discharged from active duty on July 17, 1942, but remained in the Navy Reserve, where he was promoted tocommanderon October 19, 1949, effective June 2, 1948. He resigned from the Navy Reserve effective January 18, 1964.

U.S. Senate (1949–1961)

1948 U.S. Senate election

Main article:1948 United States Senate election in Texas

Results of the Democratic runoff primary in the1948 U.S. Senate election in Texasby county. Johnson squeaked out a controversial victory by 87 votes.Johnson counties appear in blue, and Stevenson counties in green.

Johnson

• Johnson—>90%
• Johnson—80–90%
• Johnson—70–80%
• Johnson—60–70%
• Johnson—50–60%

Stevenson

• Stevenson—50–60%
• Stevenson—60–70%
• Stevenson—70–80%
• Stevenson—80–90%
• Stevenson—>90%

No vote

• No vote

In1948,Johnson again ran for the U.S. Senate and won the general election after being declared winner in a highly controversial Democratic Partyprimary electionagainst the well-known former governorCoke Stevenson.Johnson drew crowds to fairgrounds with his rentedSikorsky S-51helicopter, dubbed "The Johnson City Windmill".He raised money to flood the state with campaign circulars and won over conservatives by casting doubts on Stevenson's support for theTaft–Hartley Act(curbing union power).Stevenson came in first in the primary but lacked a majority, so a runoff election was held;Johnson campaigned harder, while Stevenson's efforts slumped due to a lack of funds.

The runoff vote count, handled by the Democratic State Central Committee, took a week. Johnson was announced the winner by 87 votes out of 988,295, an extremely narrow margin. However, Johnson's victory was based on 200 "patently fraudulent"ballots reported six days after the election fromBox 13inJim Wells County,in an area dominated by political BossGeorge Parr.The added names were in Alpha betical order and written with the same pen and handwriting, at the end of the list of voters. Some on this part of the list insisted that they had not voted that day.Election judge Luis Salas said in 1977 that he had certified 202 fraudulent ballots for Johnson.Robert Caromade the case in his 1990 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County, and that there were thousands of fraudulent votes in other counties as well, including 10,000 votes switched inSan Antonio.The Democratic State Central Committee voted to certify Johnson's nomination by a majority of one (29–28). The state Democratic convention upheld Johnson. Stevenson went to court, eventually taking his case before theU.S. Supreme Court,but with timely help from his friend and future U.S. Supreme Court JusticeAbe Fortas,Johnson prevailed on the basis that jurisdiction over naming a nominee rested with the party, not the federal government. Johnson soundly defeated RepublicanJack Porterin the general election in November and went to Washington, permanently dubbed "Landslide Lyndon". Johnson, dismissive of his critics, happily adopted the nickname.

Freshman senator to majority whip

Johnson'sUnited States Senateportrait in the 1950s

During his two terms in the Senate, Johnson drifted rightward.He felt he had to tread carefully lest he offend politically powerful conservativeoil and gas interests in Texas,and in part to curry favor with the chamber's powerful southern chairmen, most notably SenatorRichard Russell,Democrat from Georgia and leader of theSouthern Caucuswithin theConservative coalitionthat dominated the Senate.With Russell's support, Johnson won election as Democratic whip in 1951, serving in this capacity until 1953.While serving as whip, Johnson increased his ability to persuade people to reach agreement.

As a member of theSenate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce,he was chairman of the Senate subcommittee thatrefusedthe re-nomination ofLeland OldsasChairman of the Federal Power Commissionon the grounds that he had been sympathetic towards Communism.

Johnson was appointed to theSenate Armed Services Committee,and became increasingly concerned with the country's military preparedness in theCold Warwith theSoviet Union.He became chairman of theSenate Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee,and conducted investigations of defense costs and efficiency.After theKorean Warbegan in 1950, he called for more troops and for improved weapons.Johnson ensured that every report was endorsed unanimously by his committee.He used his political influence in the Senate to receive broadcast licenses from theFederal Communications Commissionin his wife's name.

Senate Democratic leader

President Johnson giving "The Treatment" to U.S. SenatorRichard Russell Jr.in 1963

In the1952 elections,Republicans won a majority in both the House and Senate. In January 1953, Johnson was chosen by his fellow Democrats as SenateMinority Leader;he became the most junior senator ever elected to this position.He reformed the seniority system so that every Democratic senator, including freshmen, was guaranteed a good committee assignment.

Senate Majority Leader

In1954,Johnson was re-elected to the Senate and, with Democrats winning the majority in the Senate, he becamemajority leader.PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerfound Johnson more cooperative than the Senate Republican leader,William F. Knowlandof California. Particularly on foreign policy, Johnson offered bipartisan support to the president.

Historians Caro and Dallek consider Johnson the most effective Senate majority leader ever.He was unusually proficient at gathering information.One biographer suggests he was "the greatest intelligence gatherer Washington has ever known", discovering exactly where every senator stood on issues, his philosophy and prejudices, his strengths and weaknesses, and what it took to get his vote.Bobby Bakerclaimed that Johnson would occasionally send senators onNATOtrips so they were absent and unable to cast dissenting votes.Central to Johnson's control was "The Treatment",described by two journalists:

The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. It came, enveloping its target, at the Johnson Ranch swimming pool, in one of Johnson's offices, in the Senate cloakroom, on the floor of the Senate itself – wherever Johnson might find a fellow Senator within his reach. Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint, and the hint of threat. It was all of these together. It ran the gamut of human emotions. Its velocity was breathtaking and it was all in one direction. Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pockets poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and the genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless.

In 1956, during theSuez Crisis,Johnson tried to prevent the U.S. government from criticizingIsraelfor its invasion of theSinai Peninsula.Along with much of the rest of the nation, Johnson was appalled by the threat of possible Soviet domination ofspace explorationimplied by the launch ofSputnik 1,the first artificial Earthsatellite,and used his influence to ensure passage of theNational Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,which establishedNASA.Johnson helped establish theSenate Aeronautical and Space Committee,and made himself its first chairman.

During his tenure as Majority Leader, Johnson did not sign the 1956Southern Manifesto,and shepherded theCivil Rights Acts of 1957and1960to passage ‍— the first civil rights bills to pass Congress since theEnforcement Actsand theCivil Rights Act of 1875duringReconstruction.Johnson negotiated a middle course between Northern liberal senators and the Southern bloc of senators who had opposed such legislation by removing key enforcement provisions,such as Title III, which authorized the attorney general to initiate civil action for preventive relief in a wide range of civil rights matters.Being a Southerner was seen as an impossible barrier for a presidential candidateand towards the end of his Senate career as well as not signing the Southern Manifesto, he distanced himself further from the Southern Caucus in 1959 by joining the Democrat's Western regional conference.

Campaigns of 1960

See also:1960 United States presidential election

1960 campaign logo

In1960,Johnson's success in the Senate rendered him a potential Democratic presidential candidate.James H. Rowerepeatedly urged Johnson to launch a campaign in early 1959, but Johnson thought it was better to wait, thinking that SenatorJohn F. Kennedy's candidacy would create a division in the ranks that could then be exploited.Johnson's strategy was to sit out theprimariesand to rely on his legislative record asSenate Majority Leader,the support ofSouthern Democrats,and the favors owed by Democratic senators to him and by Democratic representatives to his close ally Sam Rayburn, the Speaker of the House. In July 1960, Johnson finally entered the campaign. Johnson's late entry, coupled with his reluctance to leave Washington, D.C., allowed rival John F. Kennedy to secure a substantial early lead in securing support from Democratic state party officials. Johnson underestimated Kennedy's endearing charm and intelligence in comparison to his perceived crude and wheeling-dealing "Landslide Lyndon" style.Caro suggests that Johnson's hesitancy to enter the race resulted from his fear of losing.

Johnson attempted in vain to capitalize on Kennedy's youth, poor health, and failure to take a position regardingMcCarthyism.He had formed a "Stop Kennedy" coalition withAdlai Stevenson,Stuart Symington,and Hubert Humphrey, but it proved a failure. Despite Johnson having the support of established Democrats and the party leadership, this did not translate into popular approval. Johnson received 409 votes on the only ballot at the Democratic convention to Kennedy's 806, and so the convention nominated Kennedy.Tip O'Neillwas a representative from Kennedy's home state ofMassachusettsat that time, and he recalled that Johnson approached him at the convention and said, "Tip, I know you have to support Kennedy at the start, but I'd like to have you with me on the second ballot." O'Neill replied, "Senator, there's not going to be any second ballot."

Vice presidential nomination

Main article:1960 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection

After much discussion with party leaders and others, Kennedy offered Johnson the vice presidential nomination at theLos Angeles Biltmore Hotelon July 14, the morning after Kennedy was nominated, and Johnson accepted. From that point to the actual nomination that evening, several facts are in dispute, including whether convention chairmanLeRoy Collins' had the two-thirds majority required to begin the convention's proceedings.Kennedy's choice of Johnson as his running mate was intended to attract Southern votes.Kennedy was a liberalBostonianand aRoman Catholic.Johnson was more conservative, aSoutherner,and a member of theDisciples of Christ.Nevertheless, labor leaders were unanimous in their opposition to Johnson.AFL-CIOPresidentGeorge Meanycalled Johnson "the arch-foe of labor", and Illinois AFL-CIO PresidentReuben Soderstromasserted Kennedy had "made chumps out of leaders of the American labor movement".

Re-election to U.S. Senate

At the same time as his vice presidential run, Johnson also sought a third term in the U.S. Senate. According to Robert Caro:

Johnson won an election for both the vice presidency of the United States, on the Kennedy–Johnson ticket, and for a third term as senator (he had Texas law changed to allow him to run for both offices). When he won the vice presidency, he made arrangements to resign from the Senate, as he was required to do under federal law, as soon as it convened on January 3, 1961.

Johnson was re-elected senator with 1,306,605 votes (58 percent) to RepublicanJohn Tower's 927,653 (41.1 percent). Fellow DemocratWilliam A. Blakleywas appointed to replace Johnson, but lost aspecial electionin May 1961 to Tower.

Vice presidency (1961–1963)

See also:Presidency of John F. Kennedy

PresidentJohn F. Kennedyand Vice President Johnson outside theWhite Housein August 1961

Vice President Johnson and Attorney GeneralRobert Kennedymeeting with civil rights leaders at the White House on June 22, 1963

After the election, Johnson was concerned about the traditionally ineffective nature of his new office and sought authority not allotted to him as vice president. He initially sought a transfer of the authority of Senate majority leader to the vice presidency, since that office made him president of the Senate, but faced vehement opposition from the Democratic Caucus, including members whom he had counted as his supporters.

Johnson sought to increase his influence within the executive branch. He drafted an executive order for Kennedy's signature, granting Johnson "general supervision" over matters of national security, and requiring all government agencies to "cooperate fully with the vice president in the carrying out of these assignments". Kennedy's response was to sign a non-binding letter requesting Johnson to "review" national security policies instead.Kennedy similarly turned down early requests from Johnson to be given an office adjacent to the Oval Office and to employ a full-time staff within the White House.In 1961, Kennedy appointed Johnson's friendSarah T. Hughesto a federal judgeship. Johnson tried but failed to have Hughes nominated at the beginning of his vice presidency. House Speaker Sam Rayburn wrangled the appointment from Kennedy in exchange for support of an administration bill.

Many members of the Kennedy White House were openly contemptuous of Johnson, including the president's brother,Attorney GeneralRobert F. Kennedy,and they ridiculed his comparatively brusque and crude manner. Then CongressmanTip O'Neillrecalled that the Kennedy brothers "had a disdain for Johnson that they didn't even try to hide.... They actually took pride in snubbing him."

Kennedy made efforts to keep Johnson busy and informed, telling aides, "I can't afford to have my vice president, who knows every reporter in Washington, going around saying we're all screwed up, so we're going to keep him happy."Kennedy appointed him to jobs such as the head of the President's Committee onEqual Employment Opportunities,where Johnson worked with African Americans and other minorities. Kennedy may have intended this to remain a nominal position, butTaylor Branchcontends in his bookPillar of Firethat Johnson pushed the Kennedy administration's actions further and faster for civil rights than Kennedy originally intended.

Johnson went on multiple minor diplomatic missions, which gave him some insights into global issues and opportunities for self-promotion. During his visit toWest Berlinon August 19–20, 1961, Johnson sought to calm Berliners who were outraged by the building of theBerlin Wall.He also attended Cabinet andNational Security Councilmeetings. Kennedy gave Johnson control over all presidential appointments involving Texas, and appointed him chairman of the President's Ad Hoc Committee for Science.

Kennedy also appointed Johnson Chairman of theNational Aeronautics and Space Council.The Soviets beat the United States withthe first crewed spaceflightin April 1961, and Kennedy gave Johnson the task of evaluating the U.S. space program and recommending a project that would allow the United States to catch up or beat the Soviets.Johnson recommended that the United States gain the leadership role by committing tolanding an American on the Moon in the 1960s.Kennedy assigned priority to the space program, but Johnson's appointment provided cover in case of a failure.

In August 1963, Johnson was touched by a Senate scandal whenBobby Baker,the Secretary to the Majority Leader of the Senate and a protégé of Johnson's, came under investigation by theSenate Rules Committeefor alleged bribery and financial malfeasance. One witness alleged that Baker arranged for the witness to give kickbacks for the Vice President. Baker resigned in October, and the investigation did not expand to Johnson. The negative publicity, however, fed rumors in Washington circles that Kennedy was planning on dropping Johnson from the Democratic ticket in the1964 presidential election.However, on October 31, 1963, a reporter asked if he intended and expected to retain Johnson on the ticket. Kennedy replied, "Yes to both those questions."There is little doubt that Robert Kennedy and Johnson hated each other,yet John and Robert Kennedy agreed that dropping Johnson from the ticket could produce heavy losses in the South.

Presidency (1963–1969)

Main article:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson

Succession

Main article:First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson

Further information:Assassination of John F. Kennedy

Johnson is sworn in aspresidentaboardAir Force OneatDallas Love Fieldtwo hours and eight minutes followingKennedy's assassinationasMrs. JohnsonandMrs. Kennedylook on.

President Kennedy wasassassinatedon November 22, 1963, inDallas,Texas.Later that day, Johnson took thepresidential oath of officeaboardAir Force One.Cecil Stoughton's iconic photograph of Johnson taking the oath of office as Mrs. Kennedy looks on is the most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft.Johnson was sworn in by District Court judgeSarah T. Hughesand is to date the only President in U.S. history to be sworn in by a woman. Johnson was convinced of the need to make an immediate show of transition of power after the assassination to provide stability to a grieving nation. He and theSecret Service,not knowing whether the assassinacted aloneor as part of abroader conspiracy,felt compelled to return rapidly to Washington, D.C.; this was greeted by some with assertions that he was in too much haste to assume power.In response to the public demand for answers and the growing number ofconspiracy theories,Johnson established a commission headed by Chief JusticeEarl Warren,known as theWarren Commission,to investigate Kennedy's assassination.The commission conducted extensive research and hearings and unanimously concluded thatLee Harvey Oswaldacted alone in the assassination.

Johnson at a July 1965 Cabinet meeting

When Johnson assumed office, he asked the existing Cabinet to remain in place.Despite his notoriously poor relationship with Johnson, Robert F. Kennedy stayed on as Attorney General until September 1964, when he resigned torun for the U.S. Senate.Four of the Kennedy cabinet members Johnson inherited—Secretary of StateDean Rusk,Secretary of the InteriorStewart Udall,Secretary of AgricultureOrville L. Freeman,and Secretary of LaborW. Willard Wirtz—served until the end of Johnson's presidency.Other Kennedy holdovers, including Secretary of DefenseRobert McNamara,left office during Johnson's tenure. Although Johnson had no official chief of staff,Walter Jenkinspresided over daily operations at the White House.George Reedy,who was Johnson's second-longest-serving aide, assumed the post ofpress secretarywhen John F. Kennedy's ownPierre Salingerleft that post in March 1964.Horace Busbyserved primarily as a speechwriter and political analyst.Bill Moyershandled scheduling and speechwriting part-time.

Taxation and budget

The new president thought it advantageous to quickly pursue one of Kennedy's primary legislative goals ‍— atax cut.Johnson worked closely with SenatorHarry F. Byrdof Virginia to negotiate a reduction in the budget below $100 billion in exchange for what became overwhelming Senate approval of theRevenue Act of 1964.The act cut individual income tax rates across the board by approximately 20 percent, cut the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 70 percent, and slightly reduced corporate tax rates.Passage of the long-stalled tax cut facilitated efforts to move ahead on civil rights legislation.Despite a period of strong economic growth, heavy spending on the Vietnam War and on domestic programs contributed to a rising budget deficit, as well as a period ofinflationthat would continue into the 1970s.To counter this, Johnson reluctantly signed a second tax bill, theRevenue and Expenditure Control Act of 1968,which included a mix of tax increases and spending cuts, producing a budget surplus.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Main article:Civil Rights Act of 1964

Johnson meeting with civil rights leadersMartin Luther King Jr.(left),Whitney Young,andJames Farmerin theOval Officeon January 18, 1964

On November 27, 1963, Johnson delivered his"Let Us Continue" speechto Congress, saying that "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the Civil Rights Bill for which he fought so long."The wave of national grief following the assassination gave enormous momentum to Johnson's promise to carry out Kennedy's plans.

Johnson asked Robert Kennedy to spearhead the undertaking on Capitol Hill. This provided adequate political cover for Johnson should the effort fail, but if it were successful, Johnson would receive ample credit.Biographer Caro notes that the bill Kennedy had submitted was facing the same tactics that prevented the passage of civil rights bills in the past: Southern congressmen and senators used congressional procedure to prevent it from coming to a vote.In particular, they held up all of the major bills Kennedy had proposed and that were considered urgent, especially the tax reform bill, to force the bill's supporters to pull it.For Johnson's civil rights bill to reach the House floor for a vote, the president needed to find a way to circumvent RepresentativeHoward W. Smith,the chairman of theHouse Rules Committee.Johnson used adischarge petitionto force it onto the House floor.Facing a growing threat that they would be bypassed, the Rules Committee approved the bill and moved it to the floor of the full House, which soon passed it by a vote of 290–110.Johnson convinced Senate Majority LeaderMike Mansfieldto put the House bill directly into consideration by the full Senate, bypassing theSenate Judiciary Committeeand its segregationist chairmanJames Eastland.Since bottling up the civil rights bill in a committee was no longer an option, the anti-civil rights senators were left with thefilibusteras their only remaining tool. Overcoming the filibuster required the support of at least 20 Republicans, who were growing less supportive because their party was about to nominate for president a candidate who opposed the bill.According to Caro, Johnson ultimately could convince Republican leaderEverett Dirksento support the bill that amassed the necessary Republican votes to overcome the filibuster in March 1964; the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 71–29.

Johnson signed theCivil Rights Act of 1964into law on July 2.The act outlaweddiscriminationbased onrace,color,national origin, religion, or sex.It prohibits racial segregation inpublic accommodationsandemployment discrimination,and strengthened the federal government's power to investigate racial and gender employment discrimination.The following evening, Johnson told aideBill Moyers,"I think we may have lost the South for your lifetime – and mine", anticipating a backlash from Southern whites against Johnson's Democratic Party.

Great Society

Main article:Great Society

President Johnson formally presented his specific goals for theGreat Societyduring a speech at theUniversity of Michigan,May 1964

By early 1964, Johnson had begun to use the name "Great Society"to describe his domestic program. Johnson's Great Society program encompassed movements of urban renewal, modern transportation, clean environment, anti-poverty, healthcare reform, crime control, and educational reform.To ensure the passage of his programs, Johnson placed an unprecedented emphasis on relations with Congress.

1964 presidential election

Main articles:Lyndon B. Johnson 1964 presidential campaignand1964 United States presidential election

Further information:1964 Democratic National Convention

In Spring 1964, Johnson was not optimistic about his prospects of being elected president.A pivotal change took place in April when he assumed personal management of negotiations between the railroad brotherhood and the railroad industry over the issue offeatherbedding.Johnson emphasized to the parties the potential impact upon the economy of a strike. After considerable horse-trading, especially with the carriers who won promises from the president for greater freedom in setting rights and more liberal depreciation allowances from theInternal Revenue Service,Johnson obtained an agreement. This substantially boosted his self-confidence and image.

Robert F. Kennedy was widely considered an impeccable choice for Johnson'svice presidentialrunning mate but Johnson and Kennedy had never liked each other, and Johnson, afraid that Kennedy would be credited with his election as president, consistently opposed the idea.Kennedy was undecided about accepting an offer as Johnson's running mate, knowing that the prospect rankled Johnson.Barry Goldwater's poor polling numbers was perceived as reducing the political significance of Johnson's selection of a running mate.Hubert Humphrey's selection as vice president then became a foregone conclusion and was thought to strengthen Johnson in theMidwestand industrialNortheast.Knowing the degree of frustration inherent in the office of vice president, Johnson put Humphrey through a gauntlet of interviews to guarantee his loyalty. Having made the decision, he kept the announcement from the press until the last moment to maximize media speculation and coverage.

In preparation for theDemocratic conventioninAtlantic City,Johnson requested theFBIsend 30 agents to cover convention activities; the objective of the squad was to inform theWhite Housestaff of any disruptive activities. The squad's focus narrowed upon theMississippi Freedom Democratic Party(MFDP) delegation, which sought to displace the white segregationist delegation regularly selected in the state. The squad's activities included wiretaps ofMartin Luther King's room and theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee(SNCC) and theCongress of Racial Equality(CORE). From beginning to end, the squad's assignment was carefully couched in terms of the monitoring of disruptive activities that might endanger the president and other high-ranking officials.

Johnson was very concerned about potential political damage from media coverage of racial tensions exposed by a credentials fight between the MFDP and the segregationist delegation, and he assigned Humphrey to manage the problem.The convention's Credentials Committee declared that two MFDP delegates in the delegation be seated as observers and agreed to "bar future delegations from states where any citizens are deprived of the right to vote because of their race or color".The MFDP rejected the committee's ruling. The convention became the apparent personal triumph that Johnson craved, but a sense of betrayal caused by the marginalization of the MFDP would trigger disaffection with Johnson and the Democratic Party from the left; SNCC chairmanJohn Lewiswould call it a "turning point in the civil rights movement".

Results of the1964 presidential election.Johnson won 486electoral collegevotes (61% of the popular vote) toBarry Goldwater's 52

Early in the 1964 presidential campaign, Barry Goldwater appeared to be a strong contender, with strong support from the South, which threatened Johnson's position as he had predicted in reaction to the passage of the Civil Rights Act. However, Goldwater lost momentum as his campaign progressed. On September 7, 1964, Johnson's campaign managers broadcast the "Daisy ad":it portrayed a little girl picking petals from adaisy,followed by a countdown and explosion of a nuclear bomb. The message conveyed was that electing Goldwater risked a nuclear war. Goldwater's campaign message was best symbolized by the bumper sticker displayed by supporters claiming "In your heart, you know he's right". Opponents captured the spirit of Johnson's campaign with bumper stickers that said "In your heart, you know he might" and "In your guts, you know he's nuts".CIA DirectorWilliam Colbyasserted thatTracy Barnesinstructed the CIA to spy on the Goldwater campaign and the Republican National Committee to provide information to Johnson's campaign.Johnson won the presidency by a landslide with 61.05 percent of the vote, making it the highest evershare of the popular vote.At the time, this was also the widest popular margin in the 20th century ‍— more than 15.95 million votes ‍— this was later surpassed by incumbent President Nixon's victory in1972.In theElectoral College,Johnson defeated Goldwater by a margin of 486 to 52. Johnson won 44 states, compared to Goldwater's six. Voters also gave Johnson the largest majorities in Congress since FDR's election in 1936 ‍— a Senate with a 68–32 majority and a House with a 295–140 Democratic margin.

Voting Rights Act

Main article:Voting Rights Act of 1965

President Lyndon B. Johnson,Martin Luther King Jr.,andRosa Parksat the signing of theVoting Rights Acton August 6, 1965

Soon after the 1964 election, civil rights organizations such as theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference(SCLC) and theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee(SNCC) began a push for federal action to protect the voting rights of racial minorities.On March 7, 1965, these organizations began theSelma to Montgomery marchesin which Selma residents proceeded to march to Alabama's capital,Montgomery,to highlight voting rights issues and present GovernorGeorge Wallacewith their grievances. On the first march, demonstrators were stopped by state and county police, who shottear gasinto the crowd and trampled protesters. Televised footage of the scene, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", generated outrage across the country.In response to the rapidly increasing political pressure upon him, Johnson decided to immediately send voting rights legislation to Congress, and to address the American people in a speech before aJoint session of Congress.He began:

I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of democracy. I urge every member of both parties, Americans of all religions and of all colors, from every section of this country, to join me in that cause.... Rarely in any time does an issue lay bare the secret heart of America itself. Rarely are we met with a challenge, not to our growth or abundance, or our welfare or our security, but rather to the values and the purposes and the meaning of our beloved nation. The issue of equal rights for American Negroes is such an issue. And should we defeat every enemy, and should we double our wealth and conquer the stars, and still be unequal to this issue, then we will have failed as a people and as a nation. For, with a country as with a person, 'what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?'

Johnson and Dirksen established a strong bipartisan alliance in favor of theVoting Rights Act of 1965,precluding the possibility of a Senate filibuster defeating the bill. In August 1965, the House approved the bill by a vote of 333 to 85, and Senate passed the bill by a vote of 79 to 18.The landmark legislation outlawed discrimination in voting, thus allowing millions of Southern blacks to vote for the first time. The results were significant; between the years of 1968 and 1980, the number of Southern black elected state and federal officeholders nearly doubled.In Mississippi, the voter registration rate of African Americans rose from 6.7 percent to 59.8 percent between 1964 and 1967, a reflection of a broader increase in African-American voter registration rates.

After the murder of civil rights workerViola Liuzzo,Johnson went on television to announce the arrest of fourKu Klux Klansmen implicated in her death. He angrily denounced the Klan as a "hooded society of bigots," and warned them to "return to a decent society before it's too late". Johnson was the first President to arrest and prosecute members of the Klan sinceUlysses S. Grant.He turned to themes of Christian redemption to push for civil rights, mobilizing support from churches.At theHoward Universitycommencement address on June 4, 1965, he said that both the government and the nation needed to help achieve these goals: "To shatter forever not only the barriers of law and public practice but the walls which bound the condition of many by the color of his skin. To dissolve, as best we can, the antique enmities of the heart which diminish the holder, divide the great democracy, and do wrong ‍— great wrong ‍— to the children of God..."

Fair Housing Act

See also:Civil Rights Act of 1968

TheFair Housing Act,a component of theCivil Rights Act of 1968,outlawed several forms ofhousing discriminationand effectively allowed many African Americans to move to the suburbs.Johnson submitted a bill to Congress in April 1966 that barred house owners from refusing to enter into agreements on the basis of race; the bill immediately garnered opposition from many of the Northerners who had supported the last two major civil rights bills.Though a version of the bill passed the House, it failed to win Senate approval, marking Johnson's first major legislative defeat.The law gained new impetus after the April 4, 1968,assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.,and thecivil unrestacross the country that followed.The bill passed Congress on April 10 and was quickly signed into law by Johnson.

"War on Poverty"

Main article:War on Poverty

Further information:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § "War on Poverty"

President Johnson's poverty tour in 1964

In his 1964 State of the Union Address Johnson stated, "this administration today, here and now, declares an unconditionalwar on povertyin America. Our aim is not only to relieve the symptoms of poverty but to cure it–and above all, to prevent it. "In April 1964, Johnson proposed theEconomic Opportunity Act of 1964,which would create theOffice of Economic Opportunity(OEO) to oversee localCommunity Action Agencies(CAA) charged with dispensing aid to those in poverty.Each CAA was required to have "maximum feasible participation" from local residents, who would design and operate antipoverty programs unique to their communities' needs.This was threatening to local political regimes who saw CAAs as alternativepower structuresin their own communities, funded and encouraged by the OEO.In 1967, the Green Amendment gave city governments the right to decide which entity would be the official CAA for their community. The net result was a halt to thecitizen participationreform movement.

The Economic Opportunity Act created theJob CorpsandAmeriCorps VISTA,a domestic version of thePeace Corps.Modeled after theCivilian Conservation Corps(CCC), Job Corps was aresidential educationand job-training program that provided academic andvocational skillsto low-income at-risk young people.VISTA deployed volunteers on community projects across the nation to address issues such asilliteracy,inadequate housing, and poor health.By the end of 1965, 2,000 volunteers had signed on.The act reflected Johnson's belief that the government could best help the impoverished by providing them with economic opportunities.

During the Johnson administration, national poverty declined significantly, with the percentage of Americans living below the poverty line dropping from 23 to 12 percent.Johnson took an additional step in the War on Poverty with anurban renewaleffort, the "Demonstration Cities Program". To be eligible, a city was required to demonstrate its readiness to "arrest blight anddecayand make a substantial impact on the development of its entire city ". Johnson requested an investment of $400 million per year totaling $2.4 billion. In late 1966, Congress passed a substantially reduced program costing $900 million, which Johnson later called theModel Cities Program.The New York Timeswrote 22 years later that the program was largely a failure.

Healthcare reform

Further information:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § Medicare and Medicaid

Former presidentTrumanand wifeBessat Johnson's signing of theMedicare Billin 1965, asLady BirdandHubert Humphreylook on

Johnson's initial effort to improve healthcare was the creation of The Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer, and Strokes (HDCS). These diseases accounted for 71 percent of the nation's deaths in 1962.

In 1965, Johnson turned his focus to hospital insurance for the aged under Social Security.The key player in initiating this program, namedMedicare,was RepresentativeWilbur Mills,Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee. To reduce Republican opposition, Mills suggested that Medicare be fashioned as three layers: hospital insurance under Social Security; a voluntary insurance program for doctor visits; and an expanded medical welfare program for the poor, known asMedicaid.The bill passed the house by a margin of 110 votes on April 8. The effort in the Senate was considerably more complicated, but the Medicare bill passed Congress on July 28.Medicare now covers tens of millions of Americans.

Immigration

See also:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

President Johnson signs theImmigration and Nationality Act of 1965as U.S. SenatorsEdward KennedyandRobert F. Kennedy,and others look on

The sweepingImmigration and Nationality Act of 1965reformed the country's immigration system and repealed theNational Origins Formula,which had restricted emigration from countries outside of Western Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The annual rate of inflow doubled between 1965 and 1970, and doubled again by 1990, with dramatic increases fromAsiaandLatin America,including Mexico.Scholars give Johnson little credit for the law, which was not one of his priorities; he had supported theMcCarren–Walter Actof 1952, which proved unpopular with reformers.

Federal funding for education

See also:Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Further information:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § Education

First LadyLady Bird Johnsonvisits aHead Startclass, 1966

Johnson, whose own ticket out of poverty was a public education in Texas, believed that education was an essential component of theAmerican dream,especially for minorities.He made education the top priority of the Great Society agenda, with an emphasis on helping poor children. Buoyed by his landslide victory in the 1964 election, in early 1965 Johnson proposed theElementary and Secondary Education Act(ESEA), which would double federal spending on education from $4 billion to $8 billion.The bill quickly passed both houses of Congress by wide margins.ESEA increased funding to all school districts, but directed more money going to districts that had large proportions of students from poor families.

Although ESEA solidified Johnson's support among K–12 teachers' unions, neither the Higher Education Act nor the new endowments mollified the college professors and students growing increasingly uneasy with the war in Vietnam.Johnson's second major education program was theHigher Education Act of 1965,which increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans to students, and established aTeacher Corps.Johnson also establishedHead Start,anearly educationprogram to help prepare children from disadvantaged families for success in public schools.In 1967, Johnson signed thePublic Broadcasting Actto create educational television programs to supplement broadcast networks.

In 1965, Johnson set up theNational Endowment for the Humanitiesand theNational Endowment for the Arts,to support the study of literature, history, and law, and arts such as music, painting, and sculpture.

Transportation

Further information:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § Transportation

In March 1966, Johnson sent to Congress a transportation message which included the creation of a newTransportation Department,comprising the Commerce Department's Office of Transportation, the Bureau of Public Roads, theFederal Aviation Agency,theCoast Guard,the Maritime Administration, the Civil Aeronautics Board, and theInterstate Commerce Commission.The bill passed the Senate after some negotiation over navigation projects; in the House, passage required negotiation over maritime interests and the bill was signed October 15, 1965.

Environment

Further information:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § Environment

Johnson signing the Clean Air Act

During his tenure as president, Johnson signed over 300conservationmeasures into law, forming the legal basis of the modern environmental movement.He signed into law theClean Air Act of 1963,which had been proposed by President Kennedy. The Clean Air Act setemission standardsfor stationary emitters of air pollutants and directed federal funding to air quality research.In 1965, the act was amended by theMotor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act,which directed the federal government to establish and enforce nationalstandards for controlling the emission of pollutantsfrom new motor vehicles and engines.In September 1964, Johnson signed theWilderness Act,which established theNational Wilderness Preservation System(preserving 9.1 million acres offorestlandfrom industrial development),and signed a law establishing theLand and Water Conservation Fund,which aids the purchase of land used for federal and state parks.

In 1965, First LadyLady Bird Johnsontook the lead in calling for passage of theHighway Beautification Act.The act called for control ofoutdoor advertising,including removal of certain types of signs, along the nation's growingInterstate Highway Systemand the existingfederal-aid primary highway system.It also required certainjunkyardsalong Interstate or primary highways to be removed or screened and encouraged scenic enhancement and roadside development.

Gun control

Though Johnson had already introduced agun controlbill on June 6, 1968, after the assassination of Robert Kennedy,Lady Bird Johnson's press secretary Liz Carpenter, in a memo to the president, worried that the country had been "brainwashed by high drama," and that Johnson "need[ed] some quick dramatic actions" that addressed "the issue of violence." In October, Johnson signed theGun Control Act of 1968,but did not invoke the memory of Robert Kennedy as he had so often done with his brother–an omission historianJeff Shesolhas argued was motivated by Johnson's longstanding contempt for Robert.The measure prohibited convicted felons, drug users, and the mentally ill from purchasing handguns and raised record-keeping and licensing requirements.It also bannedmail ordersales of rifles and shotguns.

Urban riots

Main article:Ghetto riots (1964-1969)

Further information:Long, hot summer of 1967andKing assassination riots

Soldiers direct traffic away from an area ofSouth Central Los Angelesburning during the1965 Watts riots.

1967 Newark riots

The nation experienced a series of "long hot summers" ofcivil unrestduring the Johnson years. They started with theHarlem riotsin 1964, and theWatts districtof Los Angeles in 1965. The momentum for the advancement of civil rights came to a sudden halt in with the riots in Watts. After 34 people were killed and $35 million (equivalent to $338.39 million in 2023) in property was damaged, the public feared an expansion of the violence to other cities, and so the appetite for additional programs in Johnson's agenda was lost.

In what is known as the "Long hot summer of 1967,"more than 150 riots erupted across the United States.TheBoston Globecalled it "a revolution of black Americans against white Americans, a violent petition for the redress of long-standing grievances."TheNewark riotsleft 26 dead and 1,500 injured.TheDetroit riotresulted in 43 deaths, 2250 injuries, 4,000 arrests, and millions of dollars' worth of property damage. GovernorGeorge Romneysent in 7,400national guard troopsto quellfire bombings,looting,and attacks on businesses and police. Johnson finally sent in federal troops withtanksandmachine guns.At an August 2, 1967 cabinet meeting, Attorney GeneralRamsey Clarkwarned that untrained and undisciplined local police forces and National Guardsmen might trigger a "guerrilla warin the streets ", as evidenced by the climate ofsniperfire in Newark and Detroit.

Johnson's popularity plummeted as a massive white political backlash took shape, reinforcing the sense Johnson had lost control of the streets of major cities and his own party.The president created theKerner Commissionto study the causes behind the recurring outbreaks of urban civil disorder, headed by Illinois GovernorOtto Kerner.The commission's 1968 report suggested legislative measures to promote racial integration and alleviate poverty and concluded that the nation was "moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal."According to Press SecretaryGeorge Christian,Johnson was unsurprised by the riots, saying: "What did you expect?... When you put your foot on a man's neck and hold him down for three hundred years, and then you let him up, what's he going to do? He's going to knock your block off."

Backlash against Johnson (1966–1967)

In 1966, the press sensed acredibility gapbetween what Johnson was saying in press conferences and what was happening in theVietnam War,which led to less favorable coverage of Johnson and his administration.

By the end of 1966, Democratic GovernorWarren E. Hearnesof Missouri warned that Johnson would lose the state by 100,000 votes, despite winning by a margin of 500,000 in 1964. "Frustration over Vietnam; too much federal spending and... taxation; no great public support for your Great Society programs; and... public disenchantment with the civil rights programs" had eroded the President's standing, the governor reported.There were bright spots; in January 1967, Johnson boasted that wages were the highest in history, unemployment was at a 13-year low, and corporate profits and farm incomes were greater than ever; a 4.5 percent jump in consumer prices was worrisome, as was the rise in interest rates. Johnson asked for a temporary 6 percent surcharge inincome taxesto cover the mounting deficit caused by increased spending. Johnson's approval ratings stayed below 50 percent; by January 1967, the number of his strong supporters had plunged to 16 percent, from 25 percent four months before.

Asked to explain his diminished popularity, Johnson said, "I am a dominating personality, and when I get things done I don't always please all the people."Johnson also blamed the press, saying they showed "complete irresponsibility and lie and misstate facts and have no one to be answerable to", and "the preachers, liberals and professors" who had turned against him.

In thecongressional elections of 1966,the Republicans gained three seats in the Senate and 47 in the House, reinvigorating theconservative coalition,which made it more difficult for Johnson to pass additional Great Society legislation. However, Congress ultimately passed almost 96 percent of the administration's Great Society programs.

Space program

Further information:Space RaceandSpace policy of the United States

Former President Lyndon B. Johnson (center left) and Vice PresidentSpiro Agnew(center right) witness the liftoff ofApollo 11,the first manned space aircraft toland on the Moon,on July 16, 1969

During the Johnson administration,NASAconducted theGeminicrewed space program, developed theSaturn Vrocket andits launch facility,and prepared to make the first crewedApollo programflights. On January 27, 1967, the nation was stunned when the entire crew ofApollo 1was killed in a cabin fire during a spacecraft test on the launch pad, stopping Apollo in its tracks. Rather than appointing another Warren-style commission, Johnson accepted AdministratorJames E. Webb's request for NASA to do its own investigation.

Johnson maintained his staunch support of Apollo through Congressional and press controversy, and the program recovered. The first two crewed missions,Apollo 7and the first crewed flight to the Moon,Apollo 8,were completed by the end of Johnson's term. He congratulated the Apollo 8 crew, saying, "You've taken... all of us, all over the world, into a new era."On July 16, 1969, Johnson attended the launch of the first Moon landing missionApollo 11,becoming the first former or incumbent U.S. president to witness a rocket launch.

Vietnam War

Main article:Vietnam War

Further information:United States in the Vietnam WarandPresidency of Lyndon B. Johnson § Vietnam

Secretary of DefenseRobert McNamaraandGeneral WestmorelandinDa Nangin August 1965 as Johnson was preparing to commence a systematic bombing campaign, known asOperation Rolling Thunder,in theVietnam War

TheVietnam Warbegan in 1955 as Communist forces started operating inSouth Vietnam.By the time Johnson took office, there were 16,700 American military personnel in South Vietnam.Despite some misgivings, Johnson ultimately came to support escalation of the U.S. role in Vietnam.Like the vast majority of American leaders in the mid-1960s, he was determined to prevent the spread of Communism.Johnson's decision to escalate was also influenced heavily by reputation. Under pressure from pro-war politicians likeBarry Goldwater,Johnson feared that if he made the decision to not stand firm in Vietnam he would lose domestic political credibility as well as contribute to a decline in the international reputation of the U.S. On October 11, 1963, President Kennedy had signedNSAM 263ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following recommendations of theMcNamara–Taylor missionreport.On November 26, Johnson signedNSAM 273which reaffirmed the Kennedy administration withdrawal approval and continued support for South Vietnam.In August 1964, ambiguous evidence suggested two U.S. destroyers had beenattackedby North Vietnamese torpedo boats in international waters in theGulf of Tonkin.Although Johnson very much wanted to keep discussions about Vietnam out of the 1964 election campaign, he felt forced to respond to the supposed Communist aggression. He obtained from Congress theGulf of Tonkin Resolutionon August 7, 1964, giving blanket congressional approval for use of military force to repel future attacks.

Tens of thousands of Vietnamese civilians werekilledduring the bombing of North Vietnam inOperation Rolling Thunder.

Johnson decided on a systematic bombing campaign, which became known asOperation Rolling Thunder,in February 1965 after an attack byViet Congguerrillas onPleiku Air Base,killing eight Americans.The U.S. would continue to bomb North Vietnam until late 1968.In March 1965, McGeorge Bundy called for American ground operations; Johnson agreed and also quietly changed the mission from defensive to offensive operations.On March 8, 1965, 3,500 troops went ashore nearDa Nang,the first time U.S. combat forces had been sent to mainland Asia since theKorean War.In June, South Vietnamese AmbassadorMaxwell D. Taylorreported that the bombing offensive against North Vietnam had been ineffective and that theSouth Vietnamese armywas outclassed and in danger of collapse.In late July, McNamara and Johnson's top advisors recommended an increase in U.S. soldiers from 75,000 to over 200,000.Johnson agreed but felt boxed in by unpalatable choices. If he sent additional troops he would be attacked as an interventionist, and if he did not, he thought he risked being impeached.By October 1965, there were over 200,000 troops deployed in Vietnam.Throughout 1965, few members of Congress or the administration openly criticized Johnson's handling of the war.

President Johnson shakes hands with U.S. airmen atCam Ranh Bayin South Vietnam,c. October 1966

In early 1966, Senator Robert F. Kennedy harshly criticized Johnson's bombing campaign, stating that the U.S. may be headed "on a road from which there is no turning back, a road that leads to catastrophe for all mankind."Soon thereafter, theSenate Foreign Relations Committee,chaired by SenatorJames William Fulbright,held televised hearings examining the administration's Vietnam policy.In July, polling results indicated that Americans favored the bombing campaign by a five-to-one margin; however, in August aDefense Departmentstudy indicated that the bombing campaign was having minimal impact on North Vietnam.By late 1966, multiple sources began to report progress was being made against the North Vietnamese logistics and infrastructure; Johnson was urged to begin peace discussions. English philosopher Bertrand Russell initiated theInternational War Crimes Tribunalto condemn the American effort.The gap with Hanoi, however, was an unbridgeable demand on both sides for a unilateral end to bombing and withdrawal of forces.Johnson grew more and more anxious about justifying war casualties, and talked of the need for decisive victory, despite the unpopularity of the cause.By the end of 1966, it was clear that the air campaign and the pacification effort had both failed, and Johnson agreed to McNamara's new recommendation to add 70,000 troops in 1967 and the CIA's recommendations to increased bombings against North Vietnam.The bombing escalation ended secret talks being held with North Vietnam, but U.S. leaders did not consider North Vietnamese intentions in those talks to be genuine.

A female demonstrator offers a flower to a soldier during a 1967 anti-war demonstration atthe Pentagon

By the middle of 1967 nearly 70,000 Americans had been killed or wounded in the war, which was being commonly described in the news media and elsewhere as a "stalemate."In January and February, probes were made to assess North Vietnamese's willingness to discuss peace, but they fell on deaf ears.Ho Chi Minhdeclared that the only solution was a unilateral U.S. withdrawal.AGallup, Inc.poll in July 1967 showed that 52 percent of Americans disapproved of the president's handling of the war, and only 34 percent thought progress was being made.Nonetheless, Johnson agreed to an increase of 55,000 troops, bringing the total to 525,000.In August, Johnson, with the Joint Chiefs' support, decided to expand the air campaign and exempted only Hanoi, Haiphong and a buffer zone withChinafrom the target list.Later that month McNamara told a Senate subcommittee that an expanded air campaign would not bring Hanoi to the peace table. The Joint Chiefs were astounded, and threatened mass resignation; McNamara was summoned to the White House for a three-hour dressing down. Nevertheless, Johnson had received reports from the CIA confirming McNamara's analysis at least in part. In the meantime an election establishing a constitutional government in the South was concluded and provided hope for peace talks.

With the war arguably in a stalemate and in light of the widespread disapproval of the conflict, Johnson convened a group of veteran government foreign policy experts, informally known as "the Wise Men":Dean Acheson,GeneralOmar Bradley,George Ball,McGeorge Bundy,Arthur Dean,C. Douglas Dillon,Abe Fortas,Averell Harriman,Henry Cabot Lodge,Robert Daniel Murphy,andMaxwell D. Taylor.They unanimously opposed leaving Vietnam, and encouraged Johnson to "stay the course."Afterward, on November 17, in a nationally televised address, the president assured the American public, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking...We are making progress." Less than two weeks later, Robert McNamara announced his resignation as Defense Secretary. Behind closed doors, he had begun regularly expressing doubts over Johnson's war strategy, angering the president. He joined a growing list of Johnson's top aides who resigned over the war, including Bill Moyers, McGeorge Bundy, and George Ball.In October, with ever-increasingpublic protests against the war,Johnson engaged the FBI and the CIA to investigate, monitor, and undermine anti-war activists.In mid-October, there was a demonstration of 100,000 atthe Pentagon;Johnson andDean Ruskwere convinced that foreign communist sources were behind the demonstration, but that was refuted in the CIA's findings.

Tet Offensive

Walt Rostow,Johnson'snational security advisor,meeting with Johnson in theSituation Roomin 1968, where the two reviewed a map of the region where theBattle of Khe Sanhwas being waged

On January 30, 1968, the Viet Cong and theNorth Vietnamese Armybegan theTet Offensiveagainst South Vietnam's five largest cities, including Saigon. While the Tet Offensive failed militarily, it was a psychological victory, definitively turning American public opinion against the war effort. In February 1968, influential news anchorWalter CronkiteofCBS Newsexpressed on the air that the conflict was deadlocked and that additional fighting would change nothing. Johnson reacted, saying "If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost middle America".Indeed, demoralization about the war was everywhere; 26 percent then approved of Johnson's handling of Vietnam, while 63 percent disapproved.College students and others protested, burneddraftcards, and chanted, "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?"

The Tet Offensive convinced senior leaders of the Johnson administration, including the "Wise Men" and new Defense SecretaryClark Clifford,that further escalation of troop levels would not help bring an end to the war.Johnson was initially reluctant to follow this advice, but ultimately agreed to allow a partial bombing halt and to signal his willingness to engage in peace talks.On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced that he would halt the bombing in North Vietnam, while at the same time announcing that he would not seek re-election.He also escalated U.S. military operations in South Vietnam in order to consolidate control of as much of the countryside as possible before the onset of serious peace talks.Talks began in Paris in May, but failed to yield any results.Two of the major obstacles in negotiations were the unwillingness of the United States to allow the Viet Cong to take part in the South Vietnamese government, and the unwillingness of North Vietnam to recognize the legitimacy of South Vietnam.In October 1968, when the parties came close to an agreement on a bombing halt, Republican presidential nominee Richard Nixon intervened with the South Vietnamese, promising better terms so as to delay a settlement on the issue until after the election.Johnson sought a continuation of talks after the 1968 election, but the North Vietnamese argued about procedural matters until after Nixon took office.

Dominican Republic

Like President Kennedy, Johnson sought to isolateCuba,which was under the rule of the Soviet-alignedFidel Castro.

In 1965, theDominican Civil Warbroke out between the government of PresidentDonald Reid Cabraland supporters of former PresidentJuan Bosch.On the advice of Abe Fortas, Johnson dispatched over 20,000 Marines to the Dominican Republic.Their role was not take sides but to evacuate American citizens and restore order. The U.S. also helped arrange an agreement providing for new elections. Johnson's use of force in ending the civil war alienated many in Latin America, and the region's importance to the administration receded as Johnson's foreign policy became increasingly dominated by the Vietnam War.

Soviet Union

Main article:Cold War

Soviet PremierAlexei Kosygin(left) next to Johnson during theGlassboro Summit Conference

Though actively engaged in containment in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Latin America, Johnson made it a priority to seek arms control deals with Moscow.The Soviet Union also sought closer relations to the United States during the mid-to-late 1960s, partly due to the increasingly worseSino-Soviet split.Johnson attempted to reduce tensions withChinaby easing restrictions on trade, but the beginning of China'sCultural Revolutionended hopes of a greater rapprochement.Johnson was concerned with averting the possibility of nuclear war, and he sought to reduce tensions in Europe.The Johnson administration pursued arms control agreements with the Soviet Union, signing theOuter Space Treatyand theTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,and laid the foundation for theStrategic Arms Limitation Talks.Johnson held a largely amicable meeting with Soviet PremierAlexei Kosyginat theGlassboro Summit Conferencein 1967, and in July 1968 the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union signed theNon-Proliferation Treaty,in which each signatory agreed not to help other countries develop or acquire nuclear weapons. A planned nuclear disarmament summit between the United States and the Soviet Union was scuttled after Soviet forcesviolently suppressedthePrague Spring,an attempted democratization ofCzechoslovakia.

Surveillance of Martin Luther King

Johnson continued the FBI'swiretapping of Martin Luther King Jr.authorized by the Kennedy administration under Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy.Johnson also authorized the tapping of phone conversations of others, including the Vietnamese friends of a Nixon associate.

International trips

Further information:List of international trips made by the President of the United States § Lyndon B. Johnson

Countries visited by Johnson during his presidency

Johnson made eleven international trips to twenty countries during his presidency.He flew five hundred twenty-three thousand miles (841,690 km) aboardAir Force Onewhile in office. His October 1966 visit to Australia sparked demonstrations from anti-war protesters.One of the most unusual international trips in presidential history occurred before Christmas 1967. The President began the trip by going to the memorial for Australian Prime MinisterHarold Holt,who was presumed drowned ina swimming accident.The White House did not reveal in advance to the press that the President would make the first round-the-world presidential trip. The trip was twenty-six thousand nine hundred fifty-nine miles (43,386.3 km) completed in only 112.5 hours (4.7 days). Air Force One crossed the equator twice, stopped atTravis Air Force Base,inHonolulu,Pago Pago,Canberra,Melbourne,Vietnam,Karachi,andRome.

1968 presidential election

Main article:1968 United States presidential election

See also:Dump Johnson movement

Johnson meeting with Republican presidential candidateRichard Nixonin theWhite Housein July 1968

As he had served less than two years of President Kennedy's term, Johnson wasconstitutionally eligiblefor election to a second full term in the 1968 presidential election.Despite Johnson's growing unpopularity, conventional wisdom held that it would be impossible to deny re-nomination to a sitting president.In September 1967 Johnson openly admitted he was considering dropping out of the race for re-election.Johnson won a narrow victory in theNew Hampshire presidential primaryon March 12,but in a March 31 speech, Johnson shocked the nation when he announced he would not run for re-election by concluding with the line:"I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president".The next day, his approval ratings increased from 36 percent to 49 percent.

Historians have debated the factors that led to Johnson's surprise decision. Shesol says Johnson wanted out of the White House but also wanted vindication; when the indicators turned negative he decided to leave.Woods writes that Johnson realized he needed to leave in order for the nation to heal.Dallek says that Johnson had no further domestic goals, and realized that his personality had eroded his popularity. His health was not good, and he was preoccupied with the Kennedy campaign; his wife was pressing for his retirement and his base of support continued to shrink. Leaving the race would allow him to pose as a peacemaker.Bennett, however, says Johnson "had been forced out of a reelection race in 1968 by outrage over his policy in Southeast Asia."Johnson may also have hoped that the convention would ultimately choose to draft him back into the race.

Vice PresidentHubert Humphreyentered the race after Johnson's withdrawal, making the 1968 Democratic primaries a three-way contest between Humphrey, Kennedy, and McCarthy. Kennedy cut into McCarthy's liberal and anti-war base, while also winning the support of the poor and working class. He won a series of primary victories, but wasassassinatedin June bySirhan Sirhan,anArabnationalist.With Johnson's support, Humphrey won the presidential nomination at the tumultuous1968 Democratic National Convention,held inChicagoin late August. Violent police attacks againstanti-war protestersin Chicago marred the convention.

Humphrey's polling numbers improved after a September 30 speech in which he broke with Johnson's war policy, calling for an end to the bombing of North Vietnam.In what was termed theOctober surprise,Johnson announced to the nation on October 31, 1968, that he had ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam", effective November 1, should the North Vietnamese government be willing to negotiate and citing progress with theParis peace talks.

Republican nomineeRichard Nixonwon the election.

Judicial appointments

See also:Lyndon B. Johnson judicial appointmentsandLyndon B. Johnson judicial appointment controversies

Johnson appointedThurgood Marshall,the first African American justice, to theSupreme Court.

Johnson appointed JusticesAbe Fortas(1965) andThurgood Marshall(1967) to theSupreme Court of the United States.Johnson anticipated court challenges to his legislative measures in 1965 and thought it advantageous to have a "mole" in the Supreme Court to provide him with inside information, as he was able to get from the legislative branch. Abe Fortas in particular Johnson thought could fill the bill. The opportunity arose when an opening occurred for ambassador to the UN, with Adlai Stevenson's death; Associate JusticeArthur Goldbergaccepted Johnson's offer to transfer to the UN position. Johnson insisted on Fortas assuming Goldberg's seat, over Fortas's wife's objection that it was too early in his career.WhenEarl Warrenannounced his retirement in 1968, Johnson nominated Fortas to succeed him asChief Justice of the United States,and nominatedHomer Thornberryto succeed Fortas as associate justice. However, Fortas's nomination was filibustered by senators, and neither nominee was voted upon by the full Senate.

Post-presidency (1969–1973)

On Inauguration Day (January 20, 1969), Johnson saw Nixon sworn in, then got on the plane to fly back to Texas. When the front door of the plane closed, Johnson pulled out a cigarette ‍— his first cigarette he had smoked since his heart attack in 1955. One of his daughters pulled it out of his mouth and said, "Daddy, what are you doing? You're going to kill yourself." He took it back and said, "I've now raised you, girls. I've now been President.Now it's my time!"From that point on, he went into a very self-destructive spiral.

— HistorianMichael Beschloss

After leaving the presidency in January 1969, Johnson went home to his ranch in Stonewall, Texas, accompanied by former aide and speechwriterHarry J. Middleton,who would draft Johnson's first book,The Choices We Face,and work with him on his memoirs,The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency 1963–1969,published in 1971.That year, theLyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museumopened on the campus ofThe University of Texas at Austin.He donated his Texas ranch in his will to the public to form theLyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park,with the provision that it "remain a working ranch and not become a sterile relic of the past".

Johnson with longer hair during an interview in August 1972, five months before his death

Johnson gave Nixon high grades in foreign policy, but worried that his successor was being pressured into removing U.S. forces from South Vietnam before the South Vietnamese were able to defend themselves. "If the South falls to the Communists, we can have a serious backlash here at home," he warned.

During the1972 presidential election,Johnson only reluctantly endorsed Democratic nomineeGeorge McGovern,a senator fromSouth Dakota;McGovern had long opposed Johnson's foreign and defense policies. Johnson wanted to attend the Democratic National Convention, but was advised not to attend as he would not be welcome. The McGovern nomination and platform dismayed him. Nixon could be defeated, Johnson insisted, "if only the Democrats don't go too far left".Johnson feltEdmund Muskiewould be more likely to defeat Nixon; however, he declined to try to stop McGovern receiving the nomination as he felt his unpopularity within the Democratic Party was such that anything he said was more likely to help McGovern. Johnson's protégéJohn Connallyhad served as President Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury and then stepped down to head "Democrats for Nixon",a group funded by Republicans. It was the first time that Connally and Johnson were on opposite sides of a general election campaign.

Personal life

Marriage and children

On November 17, 1934, Johnson marriedClaudia Alta "Lady Bird" TaylorfromKarnack, Texas.The two first met after he attendedGeorgetown University Law CenterinWashington, D.C.for one semester.During their first date, Johnson asked her to marry him; many dates later, she finally agreed.The wedding was officiated byArthur R. McKinstryatSt. Mark's Episcopal ChurchinSan Antonio.They had two daughters:Lynda Birdin 1944 andLuci Bainesin 1947. Johnson gave his children names with the LBJ initials; his dog was named Little Beagle Johnson, and his home was theLBJ Ranchin theTexas Hill Country.His initials were on his cufflinks, ashtrays, and clothes.During his marriage, Johnson hadaffairswith "numerous"women, including socialiteAlice Marsh,who was considered, outside his marriage, his most important relationship.

Health

Johnson wearing acowboy hatat hisTexas ranch,1972

On July 2, 1955, at age 46, Johnson, a 60-cigarette-per-day smoker, suffered a near-fatalheart attack,which inspired him to discontinue smoking. Five months later, Johnson's doctors reported he had made "a most satisfactory recovery".

Johnson likely suffered a second heart attack following President Kennedy's assassination, but the diagnosis released to the public was that he had ananginaattack.

On November 8, 1965, Johnson underwent surgery atBethesda Naval Hospitalto remove hisgallbladderand akidney stone.After the procedure, Johnson's doctors reported that the president had come through the surgery "beautifully as expected."He was able to resume his duties the following day, and he met with reporters a couple of days later to reassure the nation that he was recovering well. Although Johnson was incapacitated during surgery, there was no transfer of presidential power to Vice President Humphrey. In March 1970, Johnson suffered an attack ofanginaand was taken toBrooke Army General HospitalinSan Antonio.He had gained more than 25 pounds (11 kg) since leaving the White House; he now weighed around 235 pounds (107 kg) and was urged to lose considerable weight. Johnson had also resumed smoking shortly before Christmas 1971, having not smoked since his near-fatal heart attack in July 1955.The following summer, again gripped by chronic chest pains, he lost 15 pounds (6.8 kg) in less than a month on a crash diet.

In April 1972, Johnson had another major heart attack while visiting his daughter, Lynda, in Virginia. "I'm hurting real bad",he confided to friends. The chest pains returned nearly every afternoon ‍— jolting pains that left him frightened and breathless. A portableoxygen tankwas kept by his bed, and he periodically interrupted what he was doing to lie down and don the mask. He continued to smoke heavily and, although nominally on alow-calorie,low-cholesterol diet,kept to it only intermittently. Meanwhile, he began to experience severe abdominal pains, diagnosed asdiverticulosis.His heart condition rapidly worsened and surgery was recommended. Johnson flew to Houston to consult with heart specialistMichael DeBakey,where he learned his condition was terminal. DeBakey found that despite two of Johnson's coronary arteries being in urgent need of acoronary bypass,his heart was in such poor condition that he likely would have died during surgery.

Death and funeral

PresidentRichard Nixonpaying his last tributes to his predecessor, former president Johnson in 1973

Johnson's grave

Johnson recorded an hour-long television interview with newsmanWalter Cronkiteat his ranch on January 12, 1973, in which he discussed his legacy, particularly about the civil rights movement. He was still smoking heavily, and told Cronkite that it was better for his heart "to smoke than to be nervous".

At approximately 3:40 P.M.Centralon January 22, 1973, Johnson suffered his final heart attack in his bedroom. He managed to telephone the Secret Service agents on the ranch, who found him still holding the telephone receiver, unconscious and "appear[ing] to be dead".They attempted resuscitation, and Johnson was airlifted in one of his planes toSan Antonio International Airport,en route toBrooke Army Medical Center.However,cardiologistandArmy colonelGeorge McGranahan pronounced himdead on arrivalat the airport at 4:33 P.M. Johnson was 64.

Shortly after the former president was pronounced dead, Johnson's press secretaryTom Johnson(no relation) telephoned Cronkite to tell him. Cronkite was anchoringCBS Evening Newslive at the moment Johnson reached him, which enabled him to report on President Johnson's death as he received direct information.Nixon mentioned Johnson's death in a speech he gave the day after Johnson died, announcing the peace agreement to end the Vietnam War.

Funeral

Afterlying in reposeat his presidential library, Johnson was honored with astate funeral.Texas CongressmanJ. J. Pickleand former Secretary of StateDean Ruskeulogizedhim when helay in stateat theCapitol.The funeral took place on January 25 at theNational City Christian Churchin Washington, D.C., where he had often worshiped as president. The service was presided over by President Nixon and attended by foreign dignitaries, led byEisaku Satō,who had served as Japanese prime minister during Johnson's presidency.Eulogies were given by George Davis, the church's pastor, andW. Marvin Watson,Johnson's lastPostmaster Generaland a longtime advisor.

Johnson was buried in his family's private cemetery at the house in which he was born. Eulogies were given by former Texas governor Connally andBilly Graham,the minister who officiated at the burial rites. The state funeral, the last for a president untilRichard Nixon's in 1994, was part of an unexpectedly busy week in Washington, beginning withRichard Nixon's second inaugurationfollowing the1972 election.As Johnson died only two days after the inauguration,the remainder of the ceremonies surrounding the inauguration were cancelled to allow for a full state funeral.It also meant that Johnson's casket traveled the entire length of the Capitol, entering through the Senate wing when taken into the Rotunda to lie in state and exiting through the House wing steps due to inauguration construction on the East Front steps.

Personality and public image

According to biographer Randall Woods, Johnson posed in many different roles:

"Johnson the Son of the Tenant Farmer, Johnson the Great Compromiser, Johnson the All-Knowing, Johnson the Humble, Johnson the Warrior, Johnson the Dove, Johnson the Romantic, Johnson the Hard-Headed Pragmatist, Johnson the Preserver of Traditions, Johnson the Crusader for Social Justice, Johnson the Magnanimous, Johnson the Vindictive or Johnson the Uncouth, LBJ the Hick, Lyndon the Satyr, and Johnson the Usurper".

Johnson had his particular brand of persuasion, known as "The Johnson Treatment"."There was no more powerful majority leader in American history," biographer Robert Dallek writes. Dallek stated that Johnson had biographies on all the senators, knew what their ambitions, hopes, and tastes were and used it to his advantage in securing votes. Another Johnson biographer noted, "He could get up every day and learn what their fears, their desires, their wishes, their wants were and he could then manipulate, dominate, persuade and cajole them." As president, Johnson vetoed 30 bills; no other president in history vetoed so many bills and never had a single one overridden by Congress. He was often seen as an ambitious, tireless, and imposing figure who was ruthlessly effective at getting legislation passed. He typically worked 18- to 20-hour days without a break and had no regular leisure activities. He stood 6 feet 3.5 inches (1.918 m) tall.

Johnson's cowboy hat and boots reflected his Texas roots and love of the rural hill country. From 250 acres (100 ha) of land that he was given by an aunt in 1951, he created a 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) working ranch with 400 cattle. TheNational Park Servicekeeps a herd descended from Johnson's and maintains the ranch property.

Biographer Randall Woods argues thatSocial Gospelthemes Johnson learned from childhood allowed him to transform social problems into moral problems. This helps explain his longtime commitment to social justice, and explicitly inspired his foreign-policy approach to Christian internationalism and nation-building. For example, in a 1966 speech he quoted at length from theSocial Creed of the Methodist Church,adding "It would be very hard for me to write a more perfect description of the American ideal."

Legacy

Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museumlocated on the campus of theUniversity of TexasinAustin

Scholars have viewed Johnson through the lens of both his legislative achievements and his lack of success in the Vietnam War. His overall rating among historians has remained relatively steady, and his average ranking is higher than any of the eight presidents who followed him, although similar to Reagan and Clinton.In public polling ofpresidential favorabilityof Johnson and the presidents who succeeded him Johnson tends to appear more toward the bottom of lists, typically exceptingGeorge W. BushandRichard Nixon,and sometimesGerald Ford.

Historian Kent Germany explains:

The man who was elected to the White House by one of the widest margins in U.S. history and pushed through as much legislation as any other American politician now seems to be remembered best by the public for succeeding an assassinated hero, steering the country into a quagmire in Vietnam, cheating on his saintly wife, exposing his stitched-up belly, using profanity, picking up dogs by their ears, swimming naked with advisers in the White House pool, and emptying his bowels while conducting official business. Of all those issues, Johnson's reputation suffers the most from his management of the Vietnam War, something that has overshadowed his civil rights and domestic policy accomplishments and caused Johnson himself to regret his handling of "the woman I really loved ‍— the Great Society."

Memorials

See also:List of memorials to Lyndon B. Johnson

The Manned Spacecraft Center inHoustonwas renamed theLyndon B. Johnson Space Centerin 1973,and theUnited States Department of Educationheadquarters was named after Johnson in 2007.TheLyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairsat the University of Texas at Austin was named in his honor, as is theLyndon B. Johnson National Grassland.Also named for him are schools in Austin andLaredo,Texas;Melbourne, Florida;andJackson, Kentucky.Interstate 635inDallasis named the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway. TheLyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomacwas dedicated in 1976.

Johnson was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomposthumously in 1980.Texas created a state holiday on August 27 to mark Johnson's birthday, known asLyndon Baines Johnson Day.

Major legislation signed

• 1963:Clean Air Act
• 1963: Higher Education Facilities Act
• 1963: Vocational Education Act
• 1964:Civil Rights Act
• 1964:Urban Mass Transportation Act
• 1964:Wilderness Act
• 1964: Nurse Training Act
• 1964:Food Stamp Act
• 1964:Economic Opportunity Act
• 1964: Housing Act
• 1965:Higher Education Act
• 1965:Older Americans Act
• 1965:Coinage Act
• 1965:Social Security Act
• 1965:Voting Rights Act
• 1965:Immigration and Nationality Services Act
• 1966:Animal Welfare Act
• 1966:Freedom of Information Act
• 1967:Age Discrimination in Employment Act
• 1967:Public Broadcasting Act
• 1968:Architectural Barriers Act
• 1968:Bilingual Education Act
• 1968:Civil Rights Act
• 1968:Gun Control Act

Significant regulatory changes

• 1968:FCCcreates national emergency number9-1-1

Works

• National Aeronautics and Space Act(1962)
• Choices We Face(1969)
• The Vantage Point(1971)

See also

• Box 13 scandal
• Family of Lyndon B. Johnson
• Electoral history of Lyndon B. Johnson
• History of the United States (1945–1964)
• History of the United States (1964–1980)
• Holocaust Museum Houston
• Johnson Doctrine
• List of presidents of the United States
• List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
• Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs
• Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museumon the campus of the University of Texas in Austin
• Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture
• Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
• Zephyr Wright

References

Works cited

• Bernstein, Irving(1996).Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson.New York:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195063127.
• Caro, Robert (1982).The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power.Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN978-0-679-72945-7.
• Caro, Robert (1990).The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Means of Ascent.Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN978-0-394-52835-9.
• Caro, Robert (2002).The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master Of The Senate.Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN978-0-394-72095-1.
• Caro, Robert (2012).The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Passage of Power.Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN978-0-375-71325-5.
• Dallek, Robert (1991).Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195079043.
• Dallek, Robert (1998).Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-505465-1.
• Gould, Lewis L. (2010).1968: The Election That Changed America.Chicago: Ivan R. Dee.ISBN978-1-56663-862-3.
• Reeves, Richard(1993).President Kennedy: Profile of Power.New York:Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-0-671-64879-4.
• Walsh, Kenneth T. (2003).Air Force One: a history of the presidents and their planes.New York: Hyperion.ISBN978-1-4013-0004-3.
• Woods, Randall (2006).LBJ: Architect of American Ambition.New York: Free Press.ISBN978-0-684-83458-0.

Further reading

Main article:Bibliography of Lyndon B. Johnson

• Andrew, John A. (1999).Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society.Chicago: Ivan R. Dee.ISBN978-1-56663-185-3.OCLC37884743.
• Berman, Larry (1991).Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate in Vietnam.
• Bornet, Vaughn Davis (1983).The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson.Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.ISBN978-0-7006-0242-1.
• Brands, H.W.(1997).The Wages of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power.New York:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-511377-8.
• Cohen, Warren I.; Tuckerm, Nancy Bernkopf, eds. (1994).Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World: American Foreign Policy 1963–1968.Cambridge University Press.
• Colman, Jonathan (2010).The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson: The United States and the World, 1963–1969(PDF).Edinburgh University Press.
• Dallek, Robert (2004).Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-1-280-50296-5.,abridged version of his two-volume biography
• Ellis, Sylvia (2013).Freedom's Pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights.Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.
• Gavin, Francis J.; Lawrence, Mark Atwood, eds. (2014).Beyond the Cold War: Lyndon Johnson and the New Global Challenges of the 1960s.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199790692.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-979069-2.
• Lichtenstein, Nelson, ed. (1976).Political Profiles: The Johnson Years.short biographies of 400+ key politicians
• Schulman, Bruce J. (1995).Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A Brief Biography with Documents.Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press.ISBN978-0-312-08351-9.
• Schwarz, Jordan A. (2011).The New Dealers: Power politics in the age of Roosevelt.Vintage. pp. 364–284.ISBN9780679747819.
• Vandiver, Frank E. (1997).Shadows of Vietnam: Lyndon Johnson's Wars.
• Woods, Randall B. (2016).Prisoners of Hope: Lyndon B. Johnson, the Great Society, and the Limits of Liberalism.
• Zarefsky, David (1986).President Johnson's War on Poverty.

Historiography

• Catsam, Derek (2007). "The Civil Rights Movement and the Presidency in the Hot Years of the Cold War: A Historical and Historiographical Assessment".History Compass.6(1): 314–344.doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00486.x.
• Germany, Kent B. (2009). "Historians and the Many Lyndon Johnsons: A Review Essay".Journal of Southern History.75(4): 1001–1028.JSTOR27779121.
• Lerner, Mitchell B. (2012).A Companion to Lyndon B. Johnson.scholarly essays on all aspects of Johnson's career.

External links

• Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library & Museum
• White House biography
• United States Congress."Lyndon B. Johnson (id: J000160)".Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
• The Presidential Recordings of Lyndon B. Johnson Digital EditionArchivedMay 6, 2021, at theWayback Machine
• AppearancesonC-SPAN
• "Life Portrait of Lyndon B. Johnson",fromC-SPAN'sAmerican Presidents: Life Portraits,November 12, 1999
• Works by or about Lyndon B. Johnsonat theInternet Archive
• Works by Lyndon B. JohnsonatLibriVox(public domain audiobooks)
• Lyndon B. Johnsoncollected news and commentary atThe New York Times
• Lyndon Baines Johnson: A Resource Guidefrom the Library of Congress
• Extensive essays on Lyndon Johnsonand shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from theMiller Center of Public Affairs
• LBJArchivedDecember 20, 2016, at theWayback Machine,anAmerican Experiencedocumentary
• Lyndon B. Johnson Personal Manuscripts
• Lyndon B. JohnsonatIMDb