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Areas most often considered to be part of the Malay world (Brunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,andEast Timor)
Areas that have historically been influenced byMalay culture(thePhilippines,Sri Lanka,Thailand)

TheMalay worldorMalay realm(Indonesian/Malay:Dunia MelayuorAlam Melayu) is a concept or an expression that has been used by different authors and groups over time to denote several different notions, derived from varied interpretations of 'Malay' either as anethnic group,as aracial category,as alinguistic groupor as acultural group.The use of the term Malay in much of the conceptualisation is largely based on the prevalentMalay cultural influence,manifested in particular through thespread of the Malay languageinSoutheast Asiaas observed by different colonial powers during theAge of Discoveryandspread of Islam.[1]The term remains highlycontroversialinIndonesiaand outside the Malay-speaking areas, because it is considered politically charged andirredentistrather than purely cultural.

The concept in its broadest territorial stretch may apply to a region synonymous withAustronesia,homeland to theAustronesian peoples,that extends fromEaster Islandin the east toMadagascarin the west.[2]Such description has its origin in the introduction of the termMalay racein the late 18th century that has been popularised byorientaliststo describe the Austronesian peoples. In a narrower sense, the Malay world has been used as a synonym for Malaysprachraum,referring to theMalay-speaking countries and territories of Southeast Asia, where different standards of Malay are thenational languagesor a variety of it is an important minority language. The term in this sense encompassesBrunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,SingaporeandSouthern Thailand,and is sometimes used interchangeably with the concepts of 'Malay Archipelago' and 'Nusantara'.[3]

Malayophones (peoples and nations that speak Malay/Indonesian as their native language or recognize it as an official language) are projected to number an estimated 330 million people by 2025, comprising just under half of the population of Southeast Asia[4]in eight sovereign states and territories: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, where Malay is an official language under the name 'Malay', 'Indonesian' or 'Malaysian';East Timorand parts ofThailandand thePhilippines,where Malay/Indonesian is recognized as a minority or trade language, and theAustralian territoriesof theCocos (Keeling) IslandsandChristmas Island,where Malay is the majority language and a significant minority, respectively.[5]

Alternatively, modern scholars correct these extended notions of the Malay world, defining it as a political andcultural areainstead. In this context, the Malay world is reduced to a region that is homeland to theMalay ethnicity,historically ruled by rivalsultanates,where variousMalayic languagesand cultural values are predominant. This area includes the coastal areas of theMalay Peninsula,Sumatra,Borneo,and the smaller islands in between.[6][7][8]

The most notable use of the concept was in the early 20th century, embraced in anirredentistfashion, byMalay nationalistsin the form of 'Greater Indonesia' or 'Greater Malay' (Indonesia Raya/Melayu Raya), as an aspiration for the natural or desired borders of a modern nation for the Malay race. Classical works of Malay literature such asSejarah MelayuandHikayat Hang Tuahdo not mention the term "Alam Melayu" (Malay world). The term only developed after 1930, with the first recorded examples coming fromMajalah Guru,aMalay statesmonthly magazine, and the newspaperSaudara,which was published in Penang and circulated throughout theStraits Settlements.Alam Melayuas a concept was only developed and gained popularity after the emergence ofMalay nationalismin the early 20th century.[9][10]

Historical origin

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Early conception

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Main articles:Melayu KingdomandSumatra
Muaro Jambi Temple Compoundslocated inKampar Regency,Indonesia,is a proof of civilization heritageMelayu Kingdom(a kingdom centered in eastern Sumatra which is the origin of the formation of the Malays).

The epic literature, theMalay Annals,associates the etymological origin of "Melayu" toSungai Melayu('Melayu river') inSumatra,Indonesia.The term is thought to be derived from theMalaywordmelaju,a combination of the verbalprefix'me' and theroot word'laju', meaning "to accelerate", used to describe the accelerating strong current of the river.[11]

As a place name (toponym)

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Map of ancient Malay realm, based on a popular theoryMelayu Kingdombased onSumatra.
  • Malayadvipa,"MalayaDvipa",is described in chapter 48,Vayu Puranaas one of the mountainous provinces in the eastern sea that was full of gold and silver. The exact modern location befitting with this term is disputed. Some scholars equate the term withSumatra,[12]while several Indian scholars associating it with the mountainousMalay Peninsula.[13][14][15][16][17]Other scholars even suggestedSri Lanka's possibility.[18]while Sumatra is more correctly associated withSuvarnadvipa(an ancient name referred to Sumatra) which means "The Gold Land" and theBarisan Mountainswhich is the mountainous range scattered from north to the south Sumatra hemisphere.[19][20][21][22][23]
  • Maleu-kolon– a location in theMalay Peninsula,fromPtolemy's work,Geographia.[24]
  • Mo-lo-yu– mentioned byYijing,aTang dynastyChinese Buddhistmonk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695. According to Yijing, theMo-Lo-Yukingdom was located at a distance of 15 days sailing from Bogha (Palembang), the capital of Sribhoga (Srivijaya). It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha (Kedah) from Mo-lo-yu; therefore, it can be reasoned that Mo-Lo-Yu would lie halfway between the two places.[25]A popular opinion as espoused by Coedes, relatesMo-Lo-YuwithJambiin Sumatra, thus creating the theory of a 'Melayu Kingdom'.[26]However, the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jing's description of a "half way sail betweenKa-Cha(Kedah) andBogha(Palembang) ".
  • Malayur– inscribed on the south wall of theBrihadeeswarar TempleinTamil Nadu.It was described as a kingdom that had "a strong mountain for its rampart" in Malay Peninsula, that fell to the Chola invaders duringRajendra Chola I's campaign in the 11th century.
  • Bhūmi Mālayu– (literally "Land of Malayu" ), a transcription fromPadang Roco Inscriptiondated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana.[27]The term is associated withDharmasrayakingdom.
  • Ma-li-yu-er– mentioned in the chronicle ofYuan Dynasty,referring to a nation of Malay Peninsula that faced the southward expansion ofSukhothai Kingdom,during the reign ofRam Khamhaeng.[28]The chronicle stated: "..Animosity occurred betweenSiamand Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other...".In response to the Sukhothai's action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaeng's court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree:" Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er ".[29]
  • Malauir– mentioned inMarco Polo'saccountas a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula,[30][31]possibly similar to the one mentioned in Yuan chronicle.
  • Malayapura– (literally "city of Malaya" or "fortress of Malaya" ), inscribed on theAmoghapasa inscriptiondated 1347 CE. The term was used byAdityawarmanto refer toDharmasraya.

Territorial identification of Malay is of ancient origin. Various foreign and local records show thatMelayu(Malay) and its similar sounding variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the ancientStraits of Malaccaregion in general.[32]

"... starting point by the Island of Pulo Catay in the region of Pattane (Pattani), situated in the east coast in 8 degrees of latitude, the pass round to the other or western coast of Ujontana (Malay peninsula), to Taranda and Ujon Calan situated in the same latitude in district of Queda (Kedah): this stretch of territory lies within the region of "Malayos" and the same language prevail throughout... "

–Manuel Godinho de Erédia,1613.[33][34]

In the 15th century, the term gradually developed into anethnonymthroughout the consolidation ofMelaka Sultanateas a regional power.[35][36]Tome Pires,an apothecary who stayed in Melaka from 1512 to 1515, after thePortuguese conquest,explained how the former Melaka classified merchants calling its port into four groups, of which the Malays orMelayudid not appear in the list, suggesting they were not then regarded as category outside the Melaka itself.[37]Another term,Malayosor the 'Sea of Malayu' was espoused by thePortuguesehistorian,Manuel Godinho de Erédiato describe areas underMalaccandominance.[38]The area covers theAndaman Seain the north, the entireStrait of Malaccain the centre, a part ofSunda Straitin the south and the westernSouth China Seain the east. It was generally described as aMuslimcentre of international trade, withMalay languageas itslingua franca.[39]Erédia's description indicates thatMalayoswas a geo-religio-sociocultural concept, a concept of geographical unity characterised by the common religious belief and cultural features.[40]

An identical term,Tanah Melayu(literally 'Malay land') is found in various Malay texts, of which the oldest are dating back to the early 17th century.[41]It is frequently mentioned in theHikayat Hang Tuah,a well known classical work that began as oral tales associated with the legendary heroes of Melaka Sultanate.Tanah Melayuin the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Melakan dominance.[42]In the early 16th century, Tomé Pires coins an almost similar term,Terra de Tana Malaiofor the southeastern part of Sumatra, where the deposed Sultan of Melaka,Mahmud Shahestablished his exiled government.

"... the country which Europeans denominate the Malay Peninsula, and which, by the natives themselves, is called 'the land of the Malays' ('Tanah Melayu'), has, from its appearing to be wholly occupied by that people, been generally considered as their original country..."

–John Crawfurd,1820[43]

The application ofTanah Melayuto theMalay Peninsulaentered into the European authorship, whenMarsdenandCrawfurdnoted it in their historical works published in 1811 and 1820 respectively. Another important term, theMalaya,an English term for the Peninsula, was already used in English writings from the early 18th century.[43]

Due to the lack of available research, it is difficult to trace the development of the concept of the Malay world as a term which later refers to thearchipelago.However, thus classical territorial identifications are believed to have formed an important antecedent for the future conceptualisation of the Malay world.[44]The term "Alam Melayu" itself did not exist before the 20th century.Classical Malay literaturesbetween the 14th century to the 20th century never mentioned "Alam Melayu" or any similar term. Instead, the term emerged along with the emergence of the Malay identity and nationality movement after 1930, mentioned in Malayperiodicalssuch asMajalah Gurumagazine,Saudaranewspaper,Majlisnewspaper, andPuisi-Puisi Kebangsaannewspaper.[45][46]

Malay as a racial category

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Main article:Malay race

The broader concept of Malay world has its origin from the conceptualisation of Malay as a race by the German scientistJohann Friedrich Blumenbach.Blumenbach identified 'Malay' as a subcategory of both theEthiopidandMongoloidraces, and expanded the term to include the native inhabitants of theMariana Islands,thePhilippines,theMaluku Islands,Sunda Islands,Indochina,as well asPacific Islandslike theTahitians.This broad conception of Malay was largely derived from the strong presence ofMalay cultural influence,particularly inlinguistic,throughout Southeast Asia at the time of European colonisation.[1]The Malay language was one aspect of the prestige of the sultanates in the region, and considered as a language of the educated people in Southeast Asia during the 17th and 18th century. An 18th century European account even suggests that one is not considered a very broadly educated man in the east, if he don't understandMalay.[47]

The popularisation of Malay as a racial category was in essence a colonial product, the significant role of which played by theSpanishsince the 17th century and that of theBritishsince the 18th century in identifyingthe Archipelagoas the Malay world. The view held byThomas Stamford Rafflesfor example, had a significant influence on English-speakers, lasting to the present day. He should probably be regarded as the most important voice in projecting the idea of a 'Malay' race or nation, not limited to the traditionalRaja-Raja Melayuor even their supporters, but embracing a large if unspecified part of the Archipelago.[48]William Marsden,another British "merchant-scientist", classified the inhabitants of the Archipelago as Malays, based on religion (Islam), language (Malay) and origin.[49]

Malay territoriality in three tiers

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In the late 19th century, an important innovation was introduced into the political vocabulary of theMalay language.The wordkerajaan,which had in older times usually meant "king", "royalty" and "kingdom", began to be defined as "government". In the same period, the termnegeriwas increasingly being used as a word equivalent to "state", in contrast to its earlier use in court texts more in the sense of a 'settlement' than of a political entity. With growing frequency, publications of the 1870s and 1880s employed the term to refer either to individualMalay sultanatesor any political state in the world beyond the Malay territories.[43]

Britishhistorian,Wilkinson,prefers the term "state" to refer to an administrative or territorial unit in the Malay Peninsula in his time, while he uses the word "kingdom" or "sultanate" for a Malay polity of older times. While Wilkinson often uses "the Peninsula" or "the Malay Peninsula", he also calls the Peninsula "Malaya."His use of the word" Malaya "occasionally includes not merely the Peninsula under British rule but also its other parts underSiamese rule.In referring tothe Archipelago,Wilkinson not only uses "the Archipelago" or "the Indian Archipelago", but also "the Malay world", which might have more sociocultural connotations.[49]

Among the textbooks available duringcolonial Malaya,Winstedt'sIlmu Alam Melayu('Geography of the Malay world') presents the clearest picture of the territoriality of the Malay community. As expressed in the title, Winstedt attempts to cover most of the Archipelago. He describes not only the British colonies and protectorates in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, but also theNetherlands East Indiesand thePhilippines.The structure ofIlmu Alam Melayushows the three-tiered constitution of the Malay world. The Malay world (Alam Melayu) is divided into sub-regions, namely, Malaya (Tanah Melayu), theBritish Borneoterritories, the Netherlands East Indies and the Philippines. Malaya, in turn, is made up of theMalay states(Negeri-Negeri Melayu). It is also important to note the standardization of geographical knowledge in this geography textbook. All states in the peninsula, the main islands and areas of the Netherlands East Indies and all of the Philippines are systematically discussed through the common topics of overview, districts and towns, products, inhabitants and history. Such a systematic and comprehensive catalogue of geographical knowledge helps to convey an image of the Malay world as a territorial entity.[50]

Malayhistorian Abdul Hadi Haji Hassan, who citesWinstedt's textbooks in hisSejarah 'Alam Melayu('History of the Malay world'), had much in common withWinstedt's view of the Malay world. According to him, the Malay territories are made up of the Malay states,Malayaand the Malay world in general. Of the 12 chapters in the three volumes of Abdul Hadi's textbook, four chapters focus on the history of theMalaysinMalaya,while other chapters deal with the history of the Malays in the Malay world generally. It ought to be added that the history of each colony or state (negeri) in theStraits Settlementsand theFederated Malay Statesis explained in the fourth and the fifth volumes of the book written by another Malay historian,Buyong Adilin 1934 and 1940. Thus, both British and Malay authors conceptualised Malay territoriality in three tiers, that is, theMalay states,Malayaand the Malay world.[51]

Malay nationalism

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Main article:Malay nationalism

The standardisation of geographical knowledge and systematic quantification, served to objectify the territoriality of the Malay community. Early authors in Malaya also developed a Malaya-centric view on the subject, proclaiming Malaya orTanah Melayuas the focal point of the Malay territories. This view reflected the substantialisation of the colonial territorial boundary and provided new objectification of space seems to have played an important role in conceiving a potential national territory. It is probable that these three territorial identities, namely, Malay states, Malaya and the Malay world had much to do with the strands ofMalay nationalism.[52]

On the one hand, in the late 1930s, Malay aristocrats and their supporters began to organize Malay state associations. For them, Malay states were the focus of territorial identity. In postwar Malaya, these state-based Malay associations were dissolved into a Malaya-based Malay political party, that is, theUnited Malays National Organisation.Their territorial identity was gradually shifted from Malay states to Malaya orTanah Melayu.On the other hand, in the late 1930s, some Malay non-aristocrat intellectuals formed a pan-Malay-oriented association, that is,Kesatuan Melayu Mudaor Young Malay Union. As shown by its president,Ibrahim Hj Yaacob,the territorial stretch of their imagined homeland covered the Malay world or theMalay Archipelagoas a whole.[52]

Modern conception

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Although the extended notions of Malay world still gained widespread currency, such conceptualisation is sometimes described in other terms, perceived as more 'neutral', likeNusantara,Indonesian archipelago,andMaritime Southeast Asia.New approaches have also been taken by modern authors to redefine the 'Malay world', by taking into account the historic political pattern of the region, in addition to the existing racial-linguistic spread model.

In this context, modern authors in Malay studies likeAnthony Milner,Geoffrey Benjamin, and Vivienne Wee provide a narrower definition, reducing the concept into a political andcultural area.Benjamin for example, describes the concept in an historically responsive manner to refer to the areas currently or formerly falling underKerajaan Melayu('Malay kingdoms'), the rule of a Malay king. It does not refer toInsular Southeast Asiaat large, and certainly not theAustronesian-speaking world as a whole, both of which are usages of Malay world that have crept into scholarly discourse. In this sense, the Malay world refers to various kingdoms and their attendant hinterlands that have existed or still exist along the coasts ofBrunei,the east coast ofSumatraand on theMalay Peninsula.[7]

This limited conceptualisation of Malay world was also espoused by Wee. She added further, that the concept is a spatial configuration that resulted from the serial patterning of political alliances, unified bySejarah Melayu,that is a particular genealogical tree of kingship. The other, non-Malay areas would be those where the rulers did not claim to belong to this particular genealogical tree. For example,Acehis located on the northern tip of the Sumatran mainland, yet the rulers evidently did not claim to belong to the Malay genealogical tree. And indeed Aceh is generally not regarded as part ofAlam Melayu.On the contrary, both the indigenous and foreign texts indicate that Aceh, similar toJava,was an historical enemy ofAlam Melayu.Hence to locate oneself withinAlam Melayuis to claim membership in a specific network of political alliances.[53]

See also

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References

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  1. ^abOoi 2009,p. 181
  2. ^Farrer 2009,p. 26
  3. ^Amin Sweeney 2011,p. 295
  4. ^https:// populationpyramid.net[bare URL]
  5. ^Samuel, J. (2010) Les voies de l’aménagement linguistique dans le monde malayophone,Télescope16:3, 135–155.
  6. ^Milner 1982,p. 112
  7. ^abBenjamin & Chou 2002,p. 7
  8. ^Wee 1985,pp. 61–62
  9. ^Roff 1974,p. 153
  10. ^Roff 1974,pp. 212–221
  11. ^Melebek & Moain 2006,pp. 9–10.
  12. ^Deka 2007,p. 57.
  13. ^Pande 2006,p. 266.
  14. ^Gopal 2000,p. 139.
  15. ^Ahir 1995,p. 612.
  16. ^Mukerjee 1984,p. 212.
  17. ^Sarkar 1970,p. 8.
  18. ^S. Pathmanathan 2006,p. 60.
  19. ^Govind Chandra Pande (2005).India's Interaction with Southeast Asia: History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 1, Part 3.Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 266.ISBN978-81-87586-24-1.
  20. ^Lallanji Gopal (2000).The economic life of northern India: c. A.D. 700–1200.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 139.ISBN978-81-208-0302-2.
  21. ^D.C. Ahir (1995).A Panorama of Indian Buddhism: Selections from the Maha Bodhi journal, 1892–1992.Sri Satguru Publications. p. 612.ISBN81-7030-462-8.
  22. ^Radhakamal Mukerjee (1984).The culture and art of India.Coronet Books Inc. p. 212.ISBN978-81-215-0114-9.
  23. ^Himansu Bhusan Sarkar (1970).Some contributions of India to the ancient civilisation of Indonesia and Malaysia.Calcutta: Punthi Pustak. p. 8.
  24. ^Gerini 1974,p. 101.
  25. ^I Ching 2005,p. xl–xli.
  26. ^Coedes 1968,pp. 79–80.
  27. ^Muljana 1981,p. 223.
  28. ^"Chronicle of Mongol Yuan".guoxue(in Chinese).Archivedfrom the original on 27 August 2010.Retrieved25 July2010.
  29. ^Hall 1981,p. 190.
  30. ^Cordier 2009,p. 105.
  31. ^Wright 2004,pp. 364–365.
  32. ^Barnard 2004,p. 3
  33. ^Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1923,p. 37
  34. ^Mohamed Anwar Omar Din 2011,p. 30
  35. ^Barnard 2004,p. 4
  36. ^Milner 2010,p. 22
  37. ^Barnard 2004,p. 6
  38. ^Andaya 2008,p. 200
  39. ^Mohamed Anwar Omar Din 2011,pp. 28–30
  40. ^Mohamed Anwar Omar Din 2011,p. 31
  41. ^Mohamed Anwar Omar Din 2012,pp. 80–81
  42. ^Reid 2010,p. 95
  43. ^abcSoda 2001,p. 211
  44. ^Andaya 2008,p. 46
  45. ^Roff 1974,pp. 153, 212–221
  46. ^Bakar 1987,pp. 47, 94, 116
  47. ^Milner 2010,p. 81
  48. ^Reid 2001,pp. 296–313
  49. ^abSoda 2001,p. 212
  50. ^Soda 2001,pp. 213–214
  51. ^Soda 2001,p. 214
  52. ^abSoda 2001,p. 229
  53. ^Wee 1985,pp. 63–65

Bibliography

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