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Supremacism

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(Redirected fromMale supremacism)
Not to be confused withsuprematism.

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Supremacismis the belief that a certain group of people is superior to all others.[1]The supposed superior people can be defined byage,gender,race,ethnicity,religion,sexual orientation,language,social class,ideology,nationality,culture,generationor belong to any other part of a particular population.

Sexual

[edit]
"Male supremacy" redirects here. For similar concepts, seemale dominance.
Further information:Sexism

Somefeminist theorists[2]have argued that inpatriarchy,a standard of male "supremacism" is enforced through a variety of cultural, political, religious, sexual, and interpersonal strategies.[2][3]Since the 19th century there have been a number of feminist movements opposed to male supremacism, usually aimed at achieving equal legal rights and protections for women in all cultural, political and interpersonal relations.[4][5][6]

Racial

[edit]
Main article:Racism
Further information:Racial discrimination,Racial hierarchy,andRacial segregation

Centuries ofEuropean colonialism in the Americas,Africa,Australia,Oceania,andAsiawere justified bywhite supremacistattitudes.[7]WhiteEuropean Americanswho participated in the slave industry tried to justify their economic exploitation ofblack peopleby creating ascientific theory of white superiority and black inferiority.[8]Thomas Jefferson,pioneer of scientific racism and enslaver of over 600 black people (regarded as property under theArticles of Confederation),[9]wrote that blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind."[10]A justification for the conquest and subjugation ofNative Americansemanated from theirdehumanizedperception as "merciless Indian savages", as described in theUnited States Declaration of Independence.[11][12]

During the 19th century, "The White Man's Burden",the phrase which refers to the thought that whites have the obligation to make the societies of the other peoples more 'civilized', was widely used to justify imperialist policies as a noble enterprise.[13][14]Thomas Carlyle,known for his historical account of theFrench Revolution,The French Revolution: A History,argued that European supremacist policies were justified on the grounds that they provided the greatest benefit to "inferior" native peoples.[15]However, even at the time of its publication in 1849, Carlyle's main work on the subject, theOccasional Discourse on the Negro Question,was poorly received by his contemporaries.[16]

Before the outbreak of theAmerican Civil War,theConfederate States of Americawas founded with a constitution that contained clauses which restricted the government's ability to limit or interfere with the institution of "negro" slavery.[17]In theCornerstone Speech,Confederate vice presidentAlexander Stephensdeclared that one of the Confederacy's foundational tenets was white supremacy over black slaves.[18]Following the war, a secret society, theKu Klux Klan,was formed in the South. Its purpose was to maintain white, Protestant supremacy after theReconstructionperiod, which it did so through violence and intimidation.[19]

According to William Nichols,religious antisemitismcan be distinguished frommodern antisemitismwhich is based onracialorethnicgrounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew uponbaptism."However, with racial antisemitism," Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.... From theEnlightenmentonward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear. "[20]

One of the firsttypologieswhich was used to classify various human races was invented byGeorges Vacher de Lapouge(1854–1936), a theoretician ofeugenics,who publishedL'Aryen et son rôle social(1899 – "TheAryanand his social role ") in 1899. In his book, he divides humanity into various,hierarchical races,starting with the highest race which is the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", and ending with the lowest race which is the "brachycephalic", "mediocre and inert" race, that race is best represented bySouthern European,Catholicpeasants ".[21]Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the "Homo europaeus"(Teutonic,Protestant,etc.), the "Homo alpinus"(Auvergnat,Turkish,etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus"(Neapolitan,Andalus,etc.) Jews were brachycephalic just like the Aryans were, according to Lapouge; but he considered them dangerous for this exact reason; they were the only group, he thought, which was threatening to displace the Aryan aristocracy.[22]Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations ofNaziantisemitismandNazi racist ideology.[23]

TheAnti-Defamation League[24](ADL) andSouthern Poverty Law Center[25]condemn writings about "Jewish Supremacism" byHolocaust-denier,formerGrand Wizardof the KKK, andconspiracy theoristDavid Dukeasantisemitic– in particular, his bookJewish Supremacism: My Awakening to the Jewish Question.[26]Kevin B. MacDonald,known for histheory of Judaism as a "group evolutionary strategy",has also been accused of being "antisemitic" andwhite supremacistin his writings on the subject by the ADL[27]and his own university psychology department.[28]

Cornel West,an African-American philosopher, writes thatblack supremacistreligious views arose in America as a part ofblack Muslimtheology in response to white supremacism.[29]

InAfrica,black SouthernSudaneseallege that they are being subjected to a racist form ofArab supremacy,which they equate with the historic white supremacism of South Africanapartheid.[30]The allegedgenocideand ethnic cleansing in the ongoingWar in Darfurhas been described as an example ofArabracism.[31] For example, in their analysis of the sources of the conflict, Julie Flint andAlex de Waalsay thatColonel Gaddafi,the leader ofLibya,sponsored "Arab supremacism" across theSaharaduring the 1970s. Gaddafi supported the "Islamic Legion"and the Sudanese opposition"National Front,including theMuslim Brothersand the Ansar, theUmma Party's military wing. "Gaddafi tried to use such forces to annexChadfrom 1979–81. Gaddafi supported the Sudanese government'swar in the Southduring the early 1980s, and in return, he was allowed to use the Darfur region as a "back door to Chad".As a result, the first signs of an" Arab racist political platform "appeared in Darfur in the early 1980s.[32]

InAsia,ancient Indians considered all foreignersbarbarians.The Muslim scholarAl-Biruniwrote that the Indians called foreigners impure.[33]A few centuries later, Dubois observes that "Hindus look upon Europeans as barbarians totally ignorant of all principles of honour and good breeding... In the eyes of a Hindu, a Pariah (outcaste) and a European are on the same level. "[33]The Chinese considered the Europeans repulsive, ghost-like creatures, and they even considered them devils. Chinese writers also referred to foreigners as barbarians.[34]

Nazi Germany

[edit]
Main article:Nazism

From 1933 to 1945,Nazi Germany,under the rule ofAdolf Hitler,promoted the belief in the existence of a superior,AryanHerrenvolk,ormaster race.Thestate's propagandaadvocated the belief thatGermanic peoples,whom they called "Aryans", were a master race or aHerrenvolkwhose members were superior to theJews,Slavs,andRomani people,so-called "gypsies".Arthur de Gobineau,a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of theancien régimein France onracial intermi xing,which he believed had destroyed the purity of theNordic race.Gobineau's theories, which attracted a large and strong following in Germany, emphasized the belief in the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan andJewish cultures.[35]

Religious

[edit]
See also:Religious intoleranceandReligious exclusivism

Religious supremacy in form oftheocracyorstate religionscan result insocietal discrimination.[36]

Christian

[edit]
See also:Christian terrorism

Academics Carol Lansing and Edward D. English argue thatChristiansupremacism was a motivation for theCrusadesin theHoly Land,as well as a motivation for crusades against Muslims and pagans throughout Europe.[37]Theblood libelis a widespread Europeanconspiracy theorywhich led to centuries ofpogromsand massacres of European Jewish minorities because it alleged that Jews required the pure blood of a Christian child in order to makematzahforPassover.Thomas of Cantimpréwrites of theblood cursewhich the Jews put upon themselves and all of their generations at the court ofPontius Pilatewhere Jesus was sentenced to death: "A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood (" solo sanguine Christiano ")."[38]TheAtlantic slave tradehas also been partially attributed to Christian supremacism.[39]TheKu Klux Klanhas been described as awhite supremacistChristian organization, as are many other white supremacist groups, such as thePosse Comitatusand theChristian IdentityandPositive Christianitymovements.[40][41]

Islamic

[edit]
See also:Islamic extremismandIslamic terrorism

AcademicsKhaled Abou El Fadl,Ian Lague, and Joshua Cone note that, while theQuranand otherIslamic scripturesexpress tolerant beliefs, there have also been numerous instances of Muslim or Islamic supremacism.[42]Examples of how supremacists have interpreted Islam include the Muslim participation in theAfrican slave trade,the early-20th-centurypan-Islamismpromoted byAbdul Hamid II,[43]thejizyaand rules of marriage in Muslim countries being imposed on non-Muslims,[44]and the majority Muslim interpretations of the rules of pluralism inMalaysia.According to scholarBernard Lewis,classical Islamic jurisprudenceimposes an open-ended duty on Muslims to expand Muslim rule and Islamic law to all non-Muslims throughout the world.[45]

North Africa has experienced numerous incidents of massacres andethnic cleansingof Jews and Christians,[46]especially in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria, where eventually Jews were forced to live inghettos.[47]Decrees ordering the destruction ofsynagogueswere enacted during theMiddle Agesin Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen.[48]At certain times in Yemen, Morocco, andBaghdad,Jews wereforced to convert to Islamor face theIslamic death penalty.[49]While there were antisemitic incidents before the 20th century, antisemitism increased after theArab–Israeli conflict.Following the1948 Arab–Israeli War,thePalestinian exodus,thecreation of the State of Israeland Israeli victories during the wars of1956and1967were a severe humiliation to Israel's opponents – primarily Egypt, Syria, and Iraq.[50]However, by the mid-1970s the vast majority of Jewshad left Muslim-majority countries,moving primarily to Israel, France, and the United States.[51]The reasons for the Jewish exodus are varied and disputed.[51]

Jewish

[edit]
Main article:Jewish supremacy

Ilan Pappé,anexpatriateIsraeli historian, writes that theFirst Aliyahto Israel "established a society based on Jewish supremacy" within "settlement-cooperatives" that were Jewish owned and operated.[52]Joseph Massad,a professor ofArab studies,holds that "Jewish supremacism" has always been a "dominating principle" inreligiousand secularZionism.[53][54]Zionism was established with the goal of creating a sovereign Jewish state, where Jews could be the majority, rather than the minority.Theodor Herzl,the ideological father of Zionism, consideredantisemitismas an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and as a result, he believed that only a separation could allow Jews to escapeeternal persecution."Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth's surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!"[55]

Since the 1990s,[56][57]Orthodox Jewishrabbisfrom Israel, most notably those affiliated toChabad-Lubavitchandreligious Zionistorganizations,[56][57][58]includingThe Temple Institute,[56][57][58]have set up amodern Noahide movement.These Noahide organizations, led by religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis, are aimed at non-Jews in order to convince them to commit to follow theNoahide laws.[56][57][58]However, these religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis that guide the modern Noahide movement, who are often affiliated with theThird Temple movement,[56][57][58]expound aracistand supremacistideologywhich consists in the belief that the Jewish people are God'schosen peopleand racially superior to non-Jews,[56][57][58]and mentor Noahides because they believe that the Messianic era will begin with therebuilding of the Third Templeon theTemple MountinJerusalemto re-institute theJewish priesthoodalong with the practice ofritual sacrifices,and the establishment of a Jewishtheocracyin Israel, supported by communities of Noahides.[56][57][58]David Novak,professor ofJewish theologyandethicsat theUniversity of Toronto,has denounced the modern Noahide movement by stating that "If Jews are telling Gentiles what to do, it’s a form ofimperialism".[59][60][61]

In the aftermath of the2022 Israeli legislative election,the winning right-wing coalition included an alliance known asReligious Zionist Party,which was described by Jewish-American columnist David E. Rosenberg as a political party "driven by Jewish supremacy andanti-Arab racism".[62]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"Supremacist".Merriam-Webster.November 7, 2023.
  2. ^abGraham, Philip (2017)."Male Sexuality and Pornography".Men and Sex: A Sexual Script Approach.Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 250–251.doi:10.1017/9781316874998.013.ISBN978-1107183933.LCCN2017004137.Patriarchal beliefs assert the "natural" superiority of men with a right to leadership in family and public life.
  3. ^Peggy Reeves Sanday,Female power and male dominance: on the origins of sexual inequality,Cambridge University Press, 1981,pp. 6–8,113–114,174,182.ISBN978-0-521-28075-4
  4. ^Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus.London: Collins. 2006.ISBN978-0-00-722405-0.
  5. ^Humm, Maggie(1992).Modern feminisms: Political, Literary, Cultural.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-08072-9.
  6. ^Cornell, Drucilla(1998).At the heart of freedom: feminism, sex, and equality.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-02896-5.
  7. ^Takashi Fujitani, Geoffrey Miles White, Lisa Yoneyama,Perilous memories: the Asia-Pacific War(s),p. 303,2001.
  8. ^Boggs, James(October 1970). "Uprooting Racism and Racists in the United States".The Black Scholar.2(2). Paradigm Publishers: 2–5.doi:10.1080/00064246.1970.11431000.JSTOR41202851.
  9. ^Finkelman, Paul (2012).Slavery in the United States.Duke University School of Law. p. 116.
  10. ^Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012)."The Monster of Monticello".The New York Times.Retrieved January 8, 2022.
  11. ^"Facebook labels declaration of independence as 'hate speech'".The Guardian.RetrievedJanuary 8,2022.
  12. ^Out West.University of Nebraska Press. 2000. p. 96.
  13. ^Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982).Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903.Yale University Press. p. 5.ISBN978-0-300-03081-5....imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the "white man's burden.
  14. ^Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February 4, 1999)."In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea".International Herald Tribune:6.:Notes that Rudyard Kipling's new poem, "The White Man's Burden", "is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion."
  15. ^"Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question".
  16. ^"Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question".
  17. ^"Constitution of the Confederate States".March 11, 1861.:"No bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves shall be passed."
  18. ^Alexander Stephens(March 21, 1861)."'Corner Stone' Speech ".:"Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its corner stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery subordination to the superior race is his natural and normal condition."
  19. ^Eric Foner,Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877,Perennial (HarperCollins), 1989, pp. 425–426.
  20. ^Nichols, William:Christian Antisemitism, A History of Hate(1993) p. 314.
  21. ^Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003).The end of the soul: scientific modernity, atheism, and anthropology in France.New York: Columbia University Press. p. 171.ISBN978-0231128469.OCLC53118940.
  22. ^Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003).The end of the soul: scientific modernity, atheism, and anthropology in France.New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 171–172.ISBN978-0231128469.OCLC53118940.
  23. ^SeePierre-André Taguieff,La couleur et le sang – Doctrines racistes à la française( "Colour and Blood – Racist doctrinesà la française"), Paris,Mille et une nuits,2002, 203 pages, andLa Force du préjugé – Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles,TelGallimard,La Découverte, 1987, 644 pages
  24. ^"David Duke: Ideology".ADL.org.Anti-Defamation League.Archived fromthe originalon April 2, 2015.RetrievedMarch 23,2015.
  25. ^"American Renaissance".Southern Poverty Law Center.RetrievedMarch 21,2015.
  26. ^Duke, David.Jewish Supremacism: My Awakening to the Jewish Question.Aware Journalism, 2007.
  27. ^"Kevin MacDonald: Ideology".archive.adl.org/.Anti-Defamation League.RetrievedMarch 21,2015.
  28. ^Rider, Tiffany (October 6, 2008)."Academic senate disassociates itself from Professor MacDonald".Daily 49er.Archived fromthe originalon December 15, 2012.RetrievedJuly 31,2017.
  29. ^Cornel West,Race Matters,Beacon Press, 1993,p. 99:"The basic aim ofblack Muslimtheology – with its distinct black supremacist account of the origins of white people – was to counter white supremacy. "
  30. ^"Racism in Sudan".February 2011.
  31. ^"Welcome To B'nai Brith".Bnaibrith.ca. August 4, 2004. Archived fromthe originalon September 19, 2010.RetrievedJuly 11,2010.
  32. ^Flint and de Waal,Darfur: A New History of a Long War,rev. ed. (London and New York: Zed Books, 2008), pp. 47–49.
  33. ^abThe First Spring: The Golden Age of Indiaby Abraham Eraly p. 313
  34. ^The Haunting Past: Politics, Economics and Race in Caribbean Lifeby Alvin O. Thompson p. 210
  35. ^Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul.World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia:Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62.
  36. ^Fox, Jonathan (2019). "The correlates of religion and state: an introduction".Religion, State and Society.47(1): 2–9.doi:10.1080/09637494.2018.1529269.ISSN0963-7494.
  37. ^Carol Lansing; Edward D. English,A companion to the medieval world,Vol. 7, John Wiley and Sons, 2009,p. 457,ISBN978-1405109222
  38. ^Albert Ehrman, "The Origins of the Ritual Murder Accusation and Blood Libel",Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought,Vol. 15, No. 4 (Spring 1976): 86
  39. ^Mary E. Hunt, Diann L. Neu,New Feminist Christianity: Many Voices, Many Views,SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2010,p. 122,ISBN978-1594732850
  40. ^R. Scott Appleby,The ambivalence of the sacred: religion, violence, and reconciliation,Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict series, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000,p. 103,ISBN978-0847685554
  41. ^"PublicEye.org – The Website of Political Research Associates".publiceye.org.RetrievedJuly 4,2015.
  42. ^Joshua Cohen, Ian Lague, Khaled Abou El Fadl,The place of tolerance in Islam,Beacon Press, 2002,p. 23,ISBN978-0807002292
  43. ^Gareth Jenkins,Political Islam in Turkey: running west, heading east?,Macmillan, 2008,p. 59,ISBN978-1403968838
  44. ^Malise Ruthven,Islam: a very short introduction,Oxford University Press, 1997, Macmillan, 2008p. 117,ISBN978-0-19-950469-5
  45. ^Lewis, Bernard,The Political Language of Islam,p. 73
  46. ^"The Forgotten Refugees – Historical Timeline".September 27, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon September 27, 2008.RetrievedMarch 20,2019.
  47. ^Roumani, Maurice.The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue,1977, pp. 26–27.
  48. ^"The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries".Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. February 19, 1947.RetrievedJuly 2,2011.
  49. ^Bat Ye'or,The Dhimmi,1985, p. 61
  50. ^Lewis (1986), p. 204
  51. ^abShenhav, Yehouda A. (2006).The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0804752961– via Google Books.
  52. ^Ilan Pappé(1999).The Israel/Palestine question.Psychology Press. p. 89.ISBN978-0415169479.Whereas the First Aliya established a society based on Jewish supremacy, the Second Aliya's method of colonization was separation from Palestinians.
  53. ^David Hirsch,Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: Cosmopolitan ReflectionsArchived2008-10-11 at theWayback Machine,The Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism Working Paper Series; discussion ofJoseph Massad's "The Ends of Zionism: Racism and the Palestinian Struggle",Interventions,Vol. 5, No. 3, 440–451, 2003.
  54. ^According toJoseph Massad's"Response to the Ad Hoc Grievance Committee Report"Archived2006-09-13 at theWayback Machineon hisColumbia Universityweb site during a 2002 rally he said "Israeli Jews will continue to feel threatened if they persist in supporting Jewish supremacy." Massad says others have misquoted him as saying Israel was a "Jewish supremacist and racist state." See for example David Horowitz,The professors: the 101 most dangerous academics in America,Regnery Publishing,271,2006
  55. ^Herzl, Theodor (1896). "Palästina oder Argentinien?". Der Judenstaat (in German). sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de. p. 29 [31]. Retrieved May 27, 2016.
  56. ^abcdefgFeldman, Rachel Z. (October 8, 2017)."The Bnei Noah (Children of Noah)".World Religions and Spirituality Project.Archivedfrom the original on January 21, 2020.RetrievedNovember 4,2020.
  57. ^abcdefgFeldman, Rachel Z. (August 2018)."The Children of Noah: Has Messianic Zionism Created a New World Religion?"(PDF).Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions.22(1).Berkeley:University of California Press:115–128.doi:10.1525/nr.2018.22.1.115.eISSN1541-8480.ISSN1092-6690.LCCN98656716.OCLC36349271.S2CID149940089.RetrievedNovember 4,2020– viaProject MUSE.
  58. ^abcdefIlany, Ofri (September 12, 2018)."The Messianic Zionist Religion Whose Believers Worship Judaism (But Can't Practice It)".Haaretz.Tel Aviv.Archivedfrom the original on February 9, 2020.RetrievedNovember 4,2020.
  59. ^Kress, Michael (2018)."The Modern Noahide Movement".My Jewish Learning.RetrievedNovember 9,2020.
  60. ^Staff, ToI."Chief rabbi: Non-Jews shouldn't be allowed to live in Israel".timesofisrael.RetrievedSeptember 10,2023.
  61. ^"The Real Reason Intermarriage Is Bad for the Jews".Haaretz.RetrievedSeptember 10,2023.
  62. ^Rosenberg, David E. (October 30, 2022)."What Makes Israel's Far Right Different".Foreign Policy.Washington, D.C.:Graham Holdings Company.ISSN0015-7228.Archivedfrom the original on November 8, 2022.RetrievedNovember 9,2022.
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