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For other uses, seeMan (disambiguation).
"Men" and "Manhood" redirect here. For other uses, seeMen (disambiguation)andManhood (disambiguation).

A man with a beard, wearing a checkered shirt, with his arms crossed.
A man with mediumskin tone,ofmedium build,and withfacial hair

Amanis anadultmalehuman.[a][2][3]Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as aboy(a malechildoradolescent).

Like most other malemammals,a man'sgenomeusually inherits anX chromosomefrom the mother and aY chromosomefrom the father.Sex differentiationof the male fetus is governed by theSRYgene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulateandrogenproduction result in the development ofsecondary sexual characteristicsthat result in even more differences between the sexes. These include greatermuscle mass,greater height, the growth offacial hairand a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by themale reproductive system,which includes thepenis,scrotum,testicles,sperm duct,prostate glandandepididymis,and by secondary sex characteristics, including a narrowerpelvisandhips,and smallerbreastsandnipples.

Throughouthuman history,traditionalgender roleshave often defined men's activities and opportunities. Men often faceconscriptioninto military service or are directed into professions with highmortality rates.Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such asreligious circumcision.Men are over-represented as both perpetrators andvictims of violence.

Trans menhave agender identitythat does not align with their femalesex assignmentat birth, whileintersexmen may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.

Etymology

Further information:Man (word),boy,father,husband,son,godparent,gentleman,andwidower

The English term "man" is derived from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*man-(seeSanskrit/Avestanmanu-,Slavicmǫž"man, male" ).[4]More directly, the word derives fromOld Englishmann.The Old English form primarily meant "person" or "human being" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for "man" as distinct from "woman"or" child "waswer.Mannonly came to mean "man" in Middle English, replacingwer,which survives today only in the compounds "werewolf"(from Old Englishwerwulf,literally "man-wolf" ), and "wergild",literally" man-payment ".[5][6][7]

Biology

Main article:Sex differences in humans
Karyotype of a human male.
Karyogramof a human male usingGiemsastaining. Human males typically possess anXY combination.

In humans, sperm cells carry either anXor aYsex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying aY chromosomefertilizes the femaleovum,the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). TheSRYgene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects ofmale sex differentiation.Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent.[8]

Primary sex characteristics (or sex organs) are characteristics that are present at birth and are integral to the reproductive process. For men, primary sex characteristics include thepenisandtesticles.

Adult humans exhibitsexual dimorphismin many other characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability. Humans are sexually dimorphic in body size, body structure, and body composition. Men tend to be taller and heavier than women, and adjusted for height, men tend to have greater lean and bone mass than women, and lower fat mass.[9]

Photograph of an adult male human, with an adult female for comparison. The pubic hair of both models is removed.
Photograph of an adult male human (right), with an adult female for comparison. Thepubic hairof both models is removed.

Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear duringpubertyinhumans.[10][11]Such features are especially evident in thesexually dimorphicphenotypic traitsthat distinguish between the sexes, but—unlike the primary sex characteristics—are not directly part of thereproductive system.[12][13][14]Secondary sexual characteristics that are specific to men include:

  • Broadened shoulders;[15]
  • Increased body hair;
  • An enlarged larynx (also known as anAdam's apple);[15]and
  • A voice that is significantly deeper than the voice of a child or a woman.[13]

Men weigh more than women.[16]On average, men are taller than women by about 10%.[16]On average, men have a larger waist in comparison to their hips (seewaist–hip ratio) than women. In women, the index and ring fingers tend to be either more similar in size or their index finger is slightly longer than their ring finger, whereas men's ring finger tends to be longer.[17]

Reproductive system

Main article:Male reproductive system
A lateral cutaway of the human male lower abdomen, showing thehuman male reproductive systemanatomy

The male reproductive system includes external and internal genitalia. The male external genitalia consist of thepenis,the male urethra, and the scrotum, while the male internal genitalia consist of the testes, the prostate, the epididymis, the seminal vesicle, the vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the bulbourethral gland.[18]

The male reproductive system's function is to producesemen,which carriesspermand thusgenetic informationthat can unite with an egg within a woman. Since sperm that enters a woman'suterusand thenfallopian tubesgoes on tofertilizean egg which develops into afetusor child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during thegestation.The study of male reproduction and associated organs is calledandrology.[19]

Testosterone stimulates the development of theWolffian ducts,the penis, and closure of thelabioscrotal foldsinto the scrotum. Another significant hormone in sexual differentiation is theanti-Müllerian hormone,which inhibits the development of theMüllerian ducts.For males during puberty, testosterone, along withgonadotropinsreleased by thepituitary gland,stimulatesspermatogenesis.[20]

Health

Further information:Gender disparities in healthandMen's health

While a majority of the global health gender disparities is weighted against women, there are situations in which men tend to fare poorer. One such instance isarmed conflicts,where men are often the immediate victims. A study of conflicts in 13 countries from 1955 to 2002 found that 81% of all violentwardeaths were male.[21]Apart from armed conflicts, areas with high incidence of violence, such as regions controlled bydrug cartels,also see men experiencing higher mortality rates.[22]This stems from social beliefs that associate ideals ofmasculinitywith aggressive, confrontational behavior.[23]Lastly, sudden and drastic changes in economic environments and the loss ofsocial safety nets,in particular social subsidies and food stamps, have also been linked to higher levels ofalcoholconsumption andpsychological stressamong men, leading to a spike in male mortality rates. This is because such situations often makes it harder for men to provide for their family, a task that has been long regarded as the "essence of masculinity."[24]A retrospective analyses of people infected with the common cold found that doctors underrate the symptoms of men, and are more willing to attribute symptoms and illness to women than men.[25]Women live longer than men in all countries, and across all age groups, for which reliable records exist.[26]In the United States, men are less healthy than women across all social classes. Non-white men are especially unhealthy. Men are over-represented in dangerous occupations and represent a majority of on the job deaths. Further, medical doctors provide men with less service, less advice, and spend less time with men than they do with women per medical encounter.[27]

Sexuality and gender

Further information:Human male sexualityandTrans man
Most men areheterosexualandcisgender.

Male sexuality and attraction varies between individuals, and a man's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, includingevolved predispositions,personality,upbringing,andculture.While most men areheterosexual,significant minorities arehomosexualorbisexual.[28]

Most cultures use agender binaryin which man is one of the two genders, the other beingwoman.[29][30][31]

Most men arecisgender,and theirgender identityaligns with theirmale sex assignmentat birth.Trans menhave a male gender identity that does not align with theirfemale sex assignmentat birth, and may undergo masculinizinghormone replacement therapyand/orsex reassignment surgery.[32]Intersexmen may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of male biology.[33]A 2016 systemic review estimated that 0.256% of people self-identify as female-to-male transgender.[34]A 2017 survey of 80,929 Minnesota students found that roughly twice as many female-assigned adolescents self-identified as transgender, compared to adolescents with a male sex assignment.[35]

Social role

Masculinity

Main article:Masculinity
Michelangelo'sDavidis theclassicalimage of youthful male beauty inWestern art.

Masculinity (also sometimes calledmanhoodormanliness) is the set of personality traits and attributes associated with boys and men. Although masculinity issocially constructed,[36]some research indicates that some behaviors considered masculine are biologically influenced.[37]To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[37]It isdistinctfrom the definition of thebiological male sex,as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits.[38]Men generally face social stigma for embodyingfemininetraits, more so than women do for embodying masculine traits.[39]This can also manifest ashomophobia.[40]

Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.[41]While the outward signs of masculinity look different in different cultures, there are some common aspects to its definition across cultures. In all cultures in the past, and still among traditional and non-Western cultures, getting married is the most common and definitive distinction between boyhood and manhood.[42]In the late 20th century, some qualities traditionally associated with marriage (such as the "triple Ps" ofprotecting, providing, andprocreating) were still considered signs of having achieved manhood.[42][43]

Relationships

Two men playing a board game

Platonic relationships are not significantly different between men and women, though some differences do exist. Friendships involving men tend to be based more on shared activities than self-disclosure and personal connection. Perceptions of friendship involving men varies among cultures and time periods.[44]In heterosexual romantic relationships, men are typically expected to take a proactive role, initiate the relationship, plan dates, and propose marriage.[45]

Status

Anthropologyhas shown that masculinity itself hassocial status,just like wealth,raceand social class. InWestern culture,for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status.[46]Many English words such asvirtueandvirile(from theIndo-European rootvirmeaningman) reflect this.[47][48]In most cultures,male privilegeallows men more rights and privileges than women. In societies where men are not given special legal privileges, they typically hold more positions of power, and men are seen as being taken more seriously in society.[46]This is associated with a "gender-role strain" in which men face increased societal pressure to conform to gender roles.[49]

History

The earliest known recorded name of a man in writing is potentiallyKushim,who would have lived sometime between 3400 and 3000 BC in theSumeriancity ofUruk;though his name may have been a title rather than his actual name.[50]The earliest confirmed names are that of Gal-Sal and his two slaves named En-pap X and Sukkalgir, fromc. 3100 BC.[51]

Family

Further information:Father
Father and son

Men may have children, whether biological oradopted;such men are called fathers. The role of men in the family has shifted considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries, taking on a more active role in raising children in most societies.[52][53][54][55]Men would traditionally marry a woman when raising children, but in modern times many countries now allow forsame-sex marriage,and for those couples to raise children either via adoption orsurrogacy.Men may besingle parents,and are increasingly so in modern times, though women are three times more likely to be single parents than men.[56]Inpaternalsocieties, men have typically have been regarded as the "head of household" and held additional social privileges.[57]

Themen's rights movementclaims men face disadvantages when claimingchild custody,however, empirical research does not support the notion of a judicial bias against men.[58]Mothers do have custody the majority of the time, but fathers do not seek custody the majority of the time, and custody is settled out of court.[59][60]

Work

See also:Work (human activity)

Men have traditionally held jobs that were not available to women. Such jobs tended to be either more strenuous, more prestigious, or more dangerous. Modern men increasingly take untraditional career paths, such as staying home and raising children while their partner works.[61]Modern men tend to work longer than women, which impacts their ability to spend time with their families.[62]Even in modern times, some jobs remain available only to men, such as military service.[63]Conscription is overwhelmingly discriminatory,currently only ten countries include women in their conscription programs.[64][65]Men continue to hold more dangerous jobs than women, even in developed countries. In the United States in 2020, ten times as many men died on the job as women, and a man was ten times more likely to die on the job than a woman.[66]

Entertainment and media

Media portrayals of men often replicate traditional understanding of masculinity. Men are portrayed more frequently in television than women and most commonly appear as leads in action and drama programming. Men are typically more active in television programming than women and typically hold more power and status. Due to their prominence, men are more likely to be both the objects and instigators of humorous or disparaging content. Fathers are often portrayed in television as either idealized and caring or clumsy and inept. In advertising, men are disproportionately featured in advertisements for alcohol, vehicles, and business products.[67]

Clothing

A man wearing abusiness suitstands next to a display of men'sblue jeansat a clothing factory.

Men's clothing typically encompasses a range of garments designed for various occasions, seasons, and styles. Fundamental items of a man's wardrobe include shirts, trousers, suits, and jackets, which are designed to provide both comfort and style while prioritizing functionality. Men's fashion also encompasses more casual garments such ast-shirts,sweatshirts,jeans,shorts,andswimwear,which are typically intended for informal settings. Cultural and regional traditions often influence men's fashion, resulting in diverse styles and garments that reflect the unique characteristics of different parts of the world.[68]

Education

An all-malefigure drawingclass in 1908 atEdinburgh College of Art

Men traditionally received more education than women as a result ofsingle-sex education.Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.[69][70]In the 21st century, the balance has shifted in many developed nations, and men now lag behind women in education.[71]

Men are more likely than women to be faculty at universities.[72]

In 2020, 90% of the world's men wereliterate,compared to 87% of women. But sub-Saharan Africa, and southwest Asia lagged behind the rest of the world; only 72% of men in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.[73]

Rights

Further information:Male privilegeandDiscrimination against men

In most societies, men have more legal and cultural rights than women,[46]andmisogynyis far more prevalent thanmisandryin society.[74][75]Men typically receive less support after being victims ofsexual assault,andrape of malesis stigmatized.[76]Domestic violence against menis similarly stigmatized.[77]Opponents ofcircumcisiondescribe it as a human rights violation.[78]Thefathers' rights movementseeks to support separated fathers that do not receive equal rights to care for their children.[79]Themen's movementis the response to issues faced by men in Western countries. It includespro-feministgroups such as themen's liberation movementandanti-feministgroups such as themanosphere.

Gender symbol

Main article:Gender symbol

TheMars symbol(♂) is a common symbol that represents the male sex.[80]The symbol is identical to the planetary symbol ofMars.[81]It was first used to denote sex byCarl Linnaeusin 1751.[82]The symbol is sometimes seen as a stylized representation of the shield and spear of theRoman godMars.According to Stearn, however, this derivation is "fanciful" and all the historical evidence favours "the conclusion of the French classical scholarClaude de Saumaise"that it is derived fromθρ,the contraction of a Greekepithetfor Mars,θοῦρος(Thouros).[83]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Malemay refer tosexorgender.[1]The pluralmenis sometimes used in certain phrases such asmen's studiesto denote male humans regardless of age.

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Bibliography

Further reading

  • Andrew Perchuk, Simon Watney,bell hooks,The Masculine Masquerade: Masculinity and Representation,MIT Press 1995
  • Pierre Bourdieu,Masculine Domination,Paperback Edition, Stanford University Press 2001
  • Robert W. Connell,Masculinities,Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995
  • Warren Farrell,The Myth of Male PowerBerkley Trade, 1993ISBN0-425-18144-8
  • Michael Kimmel(ed.), Robert W. Connell (ed.), Jeff Hearn (ed.),Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities,Sage Publications 2004

External links

  • The dictionary definition ofmanat Wiktionary
  • Quotations related toManat Wikiquote
  • Media related toMenat Wikimedia Commons
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