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This article is about Japanese comics. For Chinese comics, seeManhua.For Korean comics, seeManhwa.

Manga
PublishersList of manga publishers
PublicationsList of manga magazines
CreatorsList of manga artists
SeriesLists of manga
LanguagesJapanese
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Manga(Truyện tranh,IPA:[maŋga]ⓘ[a])arecomicsorgraphic novelsoriginating fromJapan.[1]Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century,[2]and the form has a long history in earlierJapanese art.[3]The termmangais used in Japan to refer to both comics andcartooning.Outside of Japan, the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in Japan.

In Japan, people of all ages and walks of life read manga. The medium includes works in a broad range ofgenres:action,adventure,business and commerce,comedy,detective,drama,historical,horror,mystery,romance,science fictionandfantasy,erotica(hentaiandecchi),sportsand games, and suspense, among others.[4][5]Many manga are translated into other languages.[6][7]

Since the 1950s, manga has become an increasingly major part of the Japanese publishing industry.[8]By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at¥586.4 billion($6–7 billion),[9]with annual sales of 1.9billion manga books andmanga magazines(also known as manga anthologies) in Japan (equivalent to 15issues per person).[10]In 2020 Japan's manga market value hit a new record of ¥612.6 billion due to the fast growth of digital manga sales as well as increase of print sales.[11][12]In 2022 Japan's manga market hit yet another record value of ¥675.9 billion.[13][14]Manga have also gained a significant worldwide readership.[15][16][17][18]Beginning with the late 2010s manga started massively outselling American comics.[19]

As of 2021, the top four comics publishers in the world are manga publishersShueisha,Kodansha,Kadokawa,andShogakukan.[20]In 2020 theNorth Americanmanga market was valued at almost $250 million.[21]According toNPD BookScanmanga made up 76% of overall comics and graphic novel sales in theUSin 2021.[22]The fast growth of the North American manga market is attributed to manga's wide availability on digital reading apps, book retailer chains such asBarnes & Nobleand online retailers such asAmazonas well as the increased streaming ofanime.[23][24][25]Manga represented 38% of the French comics market in 2005.[26]This is equivalent to approximately three times that of the United States and was valued at about€460 million($640million).[27]In Europe and the Middle East, the market was valued at $250 million in 2012.[28]In April 2023, theJapan Business Federationlaid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth ofJapanby further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga andvideo games,for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with thetourism sectorto help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories. The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.[29][30]

Manga stories are typically printed inblack-and-white—due to time constraints, artistic reasons (as coloring could lessen the impact of the artwork)[31]and to keep printing costs low[32]—although some full-color manga exist (e.g.,Colorful). In Japan, manga are usually serialized in large manga magazines, often containing many stories, each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue. A single manga story is almost always longer than a single issue from a Westerncomic.[33]Collected chapters are usually republished intankōbonvolumes, frequently but not exclusivelypaperback books.[34]Amanga artist(mangakain Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.[35]If a manga series is popular enough, it may beanimatedafter or during its run.[36]Sometimes, manga are based on previouslive-actionor animated films.[37]

Manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in those places that speak Chinese ( "manhua"), Korean ("manhwa"), English ("OEL manga"), and French ("manfra"), as well as in the nation of Algeria (" DZ-manga ").[38][39]

Etymology

Thekanjifor "manga" from the preface toShiji no yukikai(1798)

The word "manga" comes from the Japanese wordTruyện tranh[40](katakana:マンガ;hiragana:まんが), composed of the twokanjiMạn(man) meaning "whimsical or impromptu" andHọa(ga) meaning "pictures".[41][42]The same term is the root of the Korean word for comics,manhwa,and the Chinese wordmanhua.[43]

The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century[44]with the publication of such works asSantō Kyōden's picturebookShiji no yukikai(1798),[45][41]and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa'sManga hyakujo(1814) and the celebratedHokusai Mangabooks (1814–1834)[46]containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famousukiyo-eartistHokusai.[47]Rakuten Kitazawa(1876–1955) first used the word "manga" in the modern sense.[48]

In Japanese, "manga" refers to all kinds of cartooning, comics, and animation. Among English speakers, "manga" has the stricter meaning of "Japanese comics", in parallel to the usage of "anime"in and outside Japan. The term"ani-manga"is used to describe comics produced from animation cels.[49]

History and characteristics

Main articles:History of mangaandManga iconography
See also:KibyōshiandKamishibai
Akami-shibaistory teller fromSazae-sanbyMachiko Hasegawa.Sazae appears with her hair in a bun.

Manga originated fromemakimono(scrolls),Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga,dating back to the 12th century.[50][51]During theEdo period(1603–1867), a book of drawings titledToba Ehonfurther developed what would later be called manga.[50][51]The word itself first came into common usage in 1798,[44]with the publication of works such asSantō Kyōden's picturebookShiji no yukikai(1798),[45][41]and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa'sManga hyakujo(1814) and theHokusai Mangabooks (1814–1834).[47][52]Adam L. Kern has suggested thatkibyoshi,picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's firstcomic books.These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.[53]Some works were mass-produced as serials usingwoodblock printing.[10]however Eastern comics are generally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th century Italy.[54]

Writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. One view represented by other writers such asFrederik L. Schodt,Kinko Ito, and Adam L. Kern, stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war,Meiji,andpre-Meijicultureandart.[55]The other view, emphasizes events occurring during and after theAllied occupation of Japan(1945–1952), and stresses U.S. cultural influences, including U.S. comics (brought to Japan by theGIs) and images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especiallyDisney).[56]

Regardless of its source, an explosion of artistic creativity occurred in the post-war period,[57]involving manga artists such asOsamu Tezuka(Astro Boy) andMachiko Hasegawa(Sazae-san).Astro Boyquickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere,[58]and theanimeadaptation ofSazae-sandrew more viewers than any other anime on Japanese television in 2011.[50]Tezuka and Hasegawa both made stylistic innovations. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.[59]Hasegawa's focus on daily life and women's experience also came to characterize latershōjo manga.[60]Between 1950 and 1969, an increasingly large readership for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres,shōnen mangaaimed at boys andshōjo mangaaimed at girls.[61]

In 1969, a group of female manga artists (later called theYear 24 Group,also known asMagnificent 24s) made theirshōjomanga debut ( "year 24" comes from the Japanese name for the year 1949, the birth-year of many of these artists).[62]The group includedMoto Hagio,Riyoko Ikeda,Yumiko Ōshima,Keiko Takemiya,andRyoko Yamagishi.[34]Thereafter, primarily female manga artists would drawshōjofor a readership of girls and young women.[63]In the following decades (1975–present),shōjomanga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.[64]Major subgenres include romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese,redisuレディース,redikomiレディコミ,andjoseiNữ tính).[65]

Modernshōjomanga romance features love as a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives ofself-realization.[66]With the superheroines,shōjomanga saw releases such asPink Hanamori'sMermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch,Reiko Yoshida'sTokyo Mew Mew,andNaoko Takeuchi'sPretty Soldier Sailor Moon,which became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.[67]Groups (orsentais) of girls working together have also been popular within this genre. Like Lucia, Hanon, and Rina singing together, and Sailor Moon, Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter, and Sailor Venus working together.[68]

Manga for male readers sub-divides according to the age of its intended readership: boys up to 18 years old (shōnenmanga) and young men 18 to 30 years old (seinenmanga);[69]as well as by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sex.[70]The Japanese use different kanji for two closely allied meanings of "seinen" —Thanh niênfor "youth, young man" andThành niênfor "adult, majority" —the second referring to pornographic manga aimed at grown men and also calledseijin( "adult"Thành nhân) manga.[71]Shōnen,seinen,andseijinmanga share a number of features in common.

Boys and young men became some of the earliest readers of manga after World War II. From the 1950s on,shōnenmanga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypal boy, including subjects like robots, space-travel, and heroic action-adventure.[72]Popular themes includescience fiction,technology, sports, and supernatural settings. Manga with solitary costumed superheroes likeSuperman,Batman,andSpider-Mangenerally did not become as popular.[73]

The role of girls and women in manga produced for male readers has evolved considerably over time to include those featuring single pretty girls (bishōjo)[74]such asBelldandyfromOh My Goddess!,stories where such girls and women surround the hero, as inNegimaandHanaukyo Maid Team,or groups of heavily armed female warriors (sentō bishōjo)[75]

By the turn of the 21st century, manga "achieved worldwide popularity".[7]

With the relaxation of censorship in Japan in the 1990s, an assortment of explicit sexual material appeared in manga intended for male readers, and correspondingly continued into the English translations.[76]In 2010, theTokyo Metropolitan Governmentconsidered a bill to restrict minors' access to such content.[77][needs update]

Thegekigastyle of storytelling—thematically somber, adult-oriented, and sometimes deeply violent—focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in a gritty and unvarnished fashion.[78][79]Gekigasuch asSampei Shirato's 1959–1962Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments(Ninja Bugeichō) arose in the late 1950s and 1960s, partly from left-wing student and working-class political activism,[80]and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists likeYoshihiro Tatsumiwith existing manga.[81]

Publications and exhibition

Delegates of 3rd Asian Cartoon Exhibition, held at Tokyo (Annual Manga Exhibition) by TheJapan Foundation[82]
A manga store in Japan

In Japan, manga constituted an annual 40.6 billion yen (approximately US$395 million) publication-industry by 2007.[83]In 2006 sales of manga books made up for about 27% of total book-sales, and sale of manga magazines, for 20% of total magazine-sales.[84]The manga industry has expanded worldwide, where distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.

Marketeers primarily classify manga by the age and gender of the target readership.[85]In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover-art, and most bookstores place them on different shelves. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers may subscribe to a series intended for female readers, and so on. Japan hasmanga cafés,ormanga kissa(kissais an abbreviation ofkissaten). At amanga kissa,people drinkcoffee,read manga and sometimes stay overnight.

TheKyoto International Manga Museummaintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.[86]

Magazines

See also:List of manga magazinesandList of Japanese manga magazines by circulation
E-shimbun Nippon-chi(1874), published byKanagaki RobunandKawanabe Kyosai.

E-shimbun Nippon-chi(1874), published byKanagaki RobunandKawanabe Kyosai,is credited as the first manga magazine ever made.[87]

Manga magazines or anthologies(Truyện tranh tạp chí,manga zasshi)usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. Other magazines such as the anime fandom magazineNewtypefeatured single chapters within their monthly periodicals. Other magazines likeNakayoshifeature many stories written by many different artists; these magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books" ), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages thick. Manga magazines also containone-shot comicsand various four-panelyonkoma(equivalent tocomic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Popular shonen magazines includeWeekly Shōnen Jump,Weekly Shōnen MagazineandWeekly Shōnen Sunday- Popular shoujo manga includeCiao,NakayoshiandRibon.Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued. Magazines often have a short life.[88]

Collected volumes

Main article:Tankōbon

After a series has run for a while, publishers often collect the chapters and print them in dedicated book-sized volumes, calledtankōbon.These can be hardcover, or more usually softcover books, and are the equivalent of U.S.trade paperbacksorgraphic novels.These volumes often use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. "Deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with theused bookmarket.

History

Kanagaki RobunandKawanabe Kyōsaicreated the first manga magazine in 1874:Eshinbun Nipponchi.The magazine was heavily influenced byJapan Punch,founded in 1862 byCharles Wirgman,a British cartoonist.Eshinbun Nipponchihad a very simple style of drawings and did not become popular with many people.Eshinbun Nipponchiended after three issues. The magazineKisho Shimbunin 1875 was inspired byEshinbun Nipponchi,which was followed byMarumaru Chinbunin 1877, and thenGarakuta Chinpoin 1879.[89]Shōnen Sekaiwas the firstshōnenmagazine created in 1895 by Iwaya Sazanami, a famous writer of Japanese children's literature back then.Shōnen Sekaihad a strong focus on theFirst Sino-Japanese War.[90]

In 1905, the manga-magazine publishing boom started with theRusso-Japanese War,[91]Tokyo Pakkuwas created and became a huge hit.[92]AfterTokyo Pakkuin 1905, a female version ofShōnen Sekaiwas created and namedShōjo Sekai,considered the firstshōjomagazine.[93]Shōnen Pakkuwas made and is considered the firstchildren's mangamagazine. The children's demographic was in an early stage of development in theMeiji period.Shōnen Pakkuwas influenced from foreign children's magazines such asPuckwhich an employee of Jitsugyō no Nihon (publisher of the magazine) saw and decided to emulate. In 1924,Kodomo Pakkuwas launched as another children's manga magazine afterShōnen Pakku.[92]During the boom,Poten(derived from the French "potin" ) was published in 1908. All the pages were in full color with influences fromTokyo PakkuandOsaka Puck.It is unknown if there were any more issues besides the first one.[91]Kodomo Pakkuwas launched May 1924 by Tokyosha and featured high-quality art by many members of the manga artistry like Takei Takeo, Takehisa Yumeji and Aso Yutaka. Some of the manga featuredspeech balloons,where other manga from the previous eras did not use speech balloons and were silent.[92]

Published from May 1935 to January 1941,Manga no Kunicoincided with the period of theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945).Manga no Kunifeatured information on becoming amangakaand on other comics industries around the world.Manga no Kunihanded its title toSashie Manga Kenkyūin August 1940.[94]

Dōjinshi

Main article:Dōjinshi

Dōjinshi,produced by small publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market, resemble in their publishingsmall-pressindependently publishedcomic booksin the United States.Comiket,the largest comic bookconventionin the world with around 500,000 visitors gathering over three days, is devoted todōjinshi.While they most often contain original stories, many are parodies of or includecharactersfrom popular manga and anime series. Somedōjinshicontinue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much likefan fiction.In 2007,dōjinshisales amounted to 27.73 billion yen (US$245 million).[83]In 2006 they represented about a tenth of manga books and magazines sales.[84]

Digital manga

Thanks to the advent of the internet, there have been new ways for aspiring mangaka to upload and sell their manga online. Before, there were two main ways in which a mangaka's work could be published: taking their manga drawn on paper to a publisher themselves, or submitting their work to competitions run by magazines.[95]

Web manga

In recent years, there has been a rise in manga released digitally. Web manga, as it is known in Japan, has seen an increase thanks in part to image hosting websites where anyone can upload pages from their works for free. Although released digitally, almost all web manga sticks to the conventional black-and-white format despite some never getting physical publication.Pixivis the most popular site where amateur and professional work gets published on the site. It has grown to be the most visited site for artwork in Japan.[96]Twitterhas also become a popular place for web manga with many artists releasing pages weekly on their accounts in the hope of their work getting picked up or published professionally. One of the best examples of an amateur work becoming professional isOne-Punch Manwhich was released online and later received a professional remake released digitally and an anime adaptation soon thereafter.[97]

Many of the big print publishers have also released digital only magazines and websites where web manga get published alongside their serialized magazines.Shogakukanfor instance has two websites, Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday, that release weekly chapters for web manga and even offer contests for mangaka to submit their work. Both Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday have become one of the top web manga sites in Japan.[98][99]Some have even released apps that teach how to draw professional manga and learn how to create them.Weekly Shōnen JumpreleasedJump Paint,an app that guides users on how to make their own manga from making storyboards to digitally inking lines. It also offers more than 120 types of pen tips and more than 1,000 screentones for artists to practice.[95]Kodanshahas also used the popularity of web manga to launch more series and also offer better distribution of their officially translated works underKodansha Comicsthanks in part to the titles being released digitally first before being published physically.[100]

The rise web manga has also been credited to smartphones and computers as more and more readers read manga on their phones rather than from a print publication. While paper manga has seen a decrease over time, digital manga have been growing in sales each year. The Research Institute for Publications reports that sales of digital manga books excluding magazines jumped 27.1 percent to ¥146 billion in 2016 from the year before while sales of paper manga saw a record year-on-year decline of 7.4 percent to ¥194.7 billion. They have also said that if the digital and paper keep the same growth and drop rates, web manga would exceed their paper counterparts.[101]In 2020 manga sales topped the ¥600 billion mark for the first time in history, beating the 1995 peak due to a fast growth of the digital manga market which rose by ¥82.7 billion from a previous year, surpassing print manga sales which have also increased.[102][103]

Webtoons

Whilewebtoonshave caught on in popularity as a new medium for comics in Asia, Japan has been slow to adopt webtoons as the traditional format and print publication still dominate the way manga is created and consumed(although this is beginning to change). Despite this, one of the biggest webtoon publishers in the world,Comico,has had success in the traditional Japanese manga market. Comico was launched byNHN Japan,the Japanese subsidiary of Korean company,NHN Entertainment.As of now[when?],there are only two webtoon publishers that publish Japanese webtoons: Comico andNaver Webtoon(under the name XOY in Japan).Kakaohas also had success by offering licensed manga and translated Korean webtoons with their servicePiccoma.All three companies credit their success to the webtoon pay model where users can purchase each chapter individually instead of having to buy the whole book while also offering some chapters for free for a period of time allowing anyone to read a whole series for free if they wait long enough.[104]The added benefit of having all of their titles in color and some with special animations and effects have also helped them succeed. Some popular Japanese webtoons have also gotten anime adaptations and print releases, the most notable beingReLIFEandRecovery of an MMO Junkie.[105][106]

International markets

Main article:Manga outside Japan

By 2007, the influence of manga on international comics had grown considerably over the past two decades.[107]"Influence" is used here to refer to effects on the comics markets outside Japan and toaestheticeffects on comics artists internationally.

The reading direction in a traditional manga

Traditionally, manga stories flow from top to bottom and fromright to left.Some publishers of translated manga keep to this original format. Other publishers mirror the pages horizontally before printing the translation, changing the reading direction to a more "Western" left to right, so as not to confuse foreign readers or traditional comics-consumers. This practice is known as "flipping".[108]For the most part, criticism suggests that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM" ), who may be ignorant of how awkward it is to read comics when the eyes must flow through the pages and text in opposite directions, resulting in an experience that's quite distinct from reading something that flows homogeneously. If the translation is not adapted to the flipped artwork carefully enough it is also possible for the text to go against the picture, such as a person referring to something on their left in the text while pointing to their right in the graphic. Characters shown writing with their right hands, the majority of them, would become left-handed when a series is flipped. Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with the gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side, however these issues are minor when compared to the unnatural reading flow, and some of them could be solved with an adaptation work that goes beyond just translation and blind flipping.[109]

Asia

See also:Japanese influence on Korean cultureandJapanese influence on Chinese culture
Manga shelf in "Kim Đồng" bookstore, 55 Quang Trung,Hanoi,Vietnam

Manga has highly influenced the art styles ofmanhwaandmanhua.[110]Manga in Indonesia is published byElex Media Komputindo,Level Comic,M&CandGramedia.Manga has influenced Indonesia's original comic industry. Manga in the Philippines were imported from the US and were sold only in specialty stores and in limited copies. The first manga in Filipino language isDoraemonwhich was published by J-Line Comics and was then followed byCase Closed.[citation needed]In 2015,Boys' Lovemanga became popular through the introduction of BL manga by printing company BLACKink. Among the first BL titles to be printed were Poster Boy, Tagila, and Sprinters, all were written in Filipino. BL manga have become bestsellers in the top three bookstore companies in the Philippines since their introduction in 2015. During the same year,Boys' Lovemanga have become a popular mainstream with Thai consumers, leading to television series adapted from BL manga stories since 2016.[citation needed]Manga piracy is an increasing problem in Asia which effects many publishers. This has led to the Japanese government taking legal action against multiple operators of pirate websites.[111]

Europe

The comic book and manga storeSakura EldoradoinHamburg,Germany

Manga has influenced European cartooning in a way that is somewhat different from in the U.S. Broadcast anime in France and Italy opened the European market to manga during the 1970s.[112]French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonism)[113]and has its own highly developed tradition ofbande dessinéecartooning.[114]Manga was introduced to France in the late 1990s, where Japanese pop culture became massively popular: in 2021, 55% of comics sold in the country were manga and France is the biggest manga importer.[115][116][117]

By mid-2021, 75 percent of the €300 value ofCulture Pass[fr]accounts given to French 18 year-olds was spent on manga.[118]According to the Japan External Trade Organization, sales of manga reached $212.6 million within France and Germany alone in 2006.[112]France represents about 50% of the European market and is the second worldwide market, behind Japan.[28]In 2013, there were 41 publishers of manga in France and, together with other Asian comics, manga represented around 40% of new comics releases in the country,[119]surpassingFranco-Belgian comicsfor the first time.[120]European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka,Casterman,Glénat,Kana,andPika Édition,among others.[citation needed]European publishers also translate manga into Dutch, German, Italian, and other languages. In 2007, about 70% of all comics sold in Germany were manga.[121]Since 2010 the country celebrates Manga Day on every 27 August. In 2021 manga sales in Germany rose by 75% from its original record of 70 million in 2005. As of 2022 Germany is the third largest manga market in Europe after Italy and France.[122]

In 2021, the Spanish manga market hit a record of 1033 new title publications. In 2022 the 28th edition of theBarcelona Manga Festivalopened its doors to more than 163,000 fans, compared to a pre-pandemic 120,000 in 2019.[123]

Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom includeGollanczand Titan Books.[citation needed]Manga publishers from the United States have a strong marketing presence in the United Kingdom: for example, theTanoshimiline fromRandom House.[citation needed]In 2019The British Museumheld amass exhibition dedicated to manga.[124][125][126]

United States

The manga section atBarnes & NobleinSan Bruno,California

Manga made their way only gradually into U.S. markets, first in association with anime and then independently.[127]Some U.S.fansbecame aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.[128]However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to U.S. fans,[129]many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle, and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distributetankōbon-style manga books.[130]One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the U.S. wasKeiji Nakazawa'sBarefoot Gen,an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued byLeonard Rifasand Educomics (1980–1982).[131]More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, includingGolgo 13in 1986,Lone Wolf and CubfromFirst Comicsin 1987, andKamui,Area 88,andMai the Psychic Girl,also in 1987 and all fromViz Media-Eclipse Comics.[132]Others soon followed, includingAkirafromMarvel Comics'Epic Comicsimprint,Nausicaä of the Valley of the Windfrom Viz Media, andAppleseedfrom Eclipse Comics in 1988, and laterIczer-1(Antarctic Press,1994) andIppongi Bang'sF-111 Bandit(Antarctic Press, 1995).

During the 1980s and 1990s, Japanese animation, such asAkira,Dragon Ball,Neon Genesis Evangelion,andPokémon,made a larger impact on the fan experience and in the market than manga.[133]Matters changed when translator-entrepreneurToren SmithfoundedStudio Proteusin 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, includingMasamune Shirow'sAppleseedandKōsuke Fujishima'sOh My Goddess!,forDark HorseandEros Comix,eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.[134] Simultaneously, the Japanese publisherShogakukanopened a U.S. market initiative with their U.S. subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.[108]

A young boy readingBlack Cat

Japanese publishers began pursuing a U.S. market in the mid-1990s, due to a stagnation in the domestic market for manga.[135]The U.S. manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow'sGhost in the Shell(translated byFrederik L. SchodtandToren Smith) becoming very popular among fans.[136]An extremely successful manga and anime translated and dubbed in English in the mid-1990s wasSailor Moon.[137]By 1995–1998, theSailor Moonmangahad been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, North America and most of Europe.[138]In 1997, Mixx Entertainment began publishingSailor Moon,along withCLAMP'sMagic Knight Rayearth,Hitoshi Iwaaki'sParasyteandTsutomu Takahashi'sIce Bladein the monthly manga magazineMixxZine.Mixx Entertainment, later renamedTokyopop,also published manga intrade paperbacksand, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.[139]

During this period,Dark Horse Mangawas a major publisher of translated manga. In addition toOh My Goddess!,the company publishedAkira,Astro Boy,Berserk,Blade of the Immortal,Ghost in the Shell,Lone Wolf and Cub,Yasuhiro Nightow'sTrigunandBlood Blockade Battlefront,Gantz,Kouta Hirano'sHellsingandDrifters,Blood+,Multiple Personality Detective Psycho,FLCL,Mob Psycho 100,andOreimo.The company received 13Eisner Awardnominations for its manga titles, and three of the four manga creators admitted toThe Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame—Osamu Tezuka,Kazuo Koike,andGoseki Kojima— were published in Dark Horse translations.[140]

In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.[141]ThePokémonmangaElectric Tale of Pikachuissue #1 sold over 1million copies in the United States, making it the best-selling singlecomic bookin the United States since 1993.[142]By 2008, the U.S. and Canadian manga market generated $175 million in annual sales.[143]Simultaneously, mainstream U.S. media began to discuss manga, with articles inThe New York Times,[144]Timemagazine,The Wall Street Journal,andWiredmagazine.[145]As of 2017, manga distributorViz Mediais the largest publisher ofgraphic novelsand comic books in the United States, with a 23% share of the market.[146]BookScansales show that manga is one of the fastest-growing areas of the comic book and narrative fiction markets. From January 2019 to May 2019, the manga market grew 16%, compared to the overall comic book market's 5% growth.The NPD Groupnoted that, compared to other comic book readers, manga readers are younger (76% under 30) and more diverse, including a higher female readership (16% higher than other comic books).[147] As of January 2020, manga is the second largest category in the US comic book and graphic novel market, accounting for 27% of the entire market share.[148]During theCOVID-19 pandemicsome stores of the American booksellerBarnes & Noblesaw up to a 500% increase in sales fromgraphic noveland manga sales due to the younger generations showing a high interest in the medium.[149]Sales of print manga titles in the U.S. increased by 3.6 million units in the first quarter of 2021 compared to the same period in 2020.[150]In 2021, 24.4 million units of manga were sold in the United States. This is an increase of about 15 million (160%) more sales than in 2020.[151][152]In 2022, most of the top-selling comic creators in the United States were mangaka.[153]The same year manga sales saw an increase of 9%.[154]

Localized manga

Main articles:ManfraandOriginal English-language manga

A number of artists in the United States have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. As an early example,Vernon Grantdrew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[155]Others includeFrank Miller's mid-1980sRonin,Adam Warrenand Toren Smith's 1988The Dirty Pair,[156]Ben Dunn's 1987Ninja High SchoolandManga Shi 2000fromCrusade Comics(1997).

By the beginning of the 21st century, several U.S. manga publishers had begun to produce work by U.S. artists under the broad marketing-label of manga.[157]In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerlyStudio Ironcatand now out of business, launched a series of manga by U.S. artists calledAmerimanga.[158]In 2004,eigoMANGAlaunched theRumble PakandSakura Pakkanthology series.Seven Seas Entertainmentfollowed suit withWorld Manga.[159]Simultaneously, TokyoPop introducedoriginal English-language manga(OEL manga) later renamedGlobal Manga.[160]

Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga (manfra), likeFrédéric Boilet'sla nouvelle manga.Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.[161]

Awards

The Japanese manga industry grants a large number of awards, mostly sponsored by publishers, with the winning prize usually including publication of the winning stories in magazines released by the sponsoring publisher. Examples of these awards include:

TheJapanese Ministry of Foreign Affairshas awarded theInternational Manga Awardannually since May 2007.[162]

University education

Kyoto Seika Universityin Japan has offered a highly competitive course in manga since 2000.[163][164]Then, several established universities andvocational schools( chuyên môn trường học:Semmon gakkou) established atraining curriculum.

Shuho Sato,who wroteUmizaruandSay Hello to Black Jack,has created some controversy onTwitter.Sato says, "Manga school is meaningless because those schools have very low success rates. Then, I could teach novices required skills on the job in three months. Meanwhile, those school students spend several million yen, and four years, yet they are good for nothing." and that, "For instance,Keiko Takemiya,the then professor ofSeika Univ.,remarked in the Government Council that 'A complete novice will be able to understand where is "Tachikiri" (i.e.,margin section) during four years.' On the other hand, I would imagine that, It takes about thirty minutes to completely understand that at work. "[165]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^English:/ˈmæŋɡə/;alsoUS:/ˈmɑːŋɡə/

References

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Works cited

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related toManga.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide forAnime and manga in Japan.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manga&oldid=1231339406"