Manichaeism

"Manichaean" redirects here. For the writing system, seeManichaean script.

Not to be confused withMandaeism.

Manichaeism
آیینِ مانیMa ni giáo
Sealstone of Mani,rock crystal, possibly 3rd century CE, Iraq.Cabinet des Médailles,Paris.The seal reads"Mani, messenger of the messiah",and may have been used by Mani himself to sign his epistles.
Type	Universal religion
Classification	Iranian religion
Scripture	Manichaean scripture
Theology	Dualistic
Region	Historical:Europe,East Asia,Central Asia,West Asia,North Africa,Siberia Current:Fu gian,Zhe gian g
Language	Middle Persian,Classical Syriac,Parthian,Classical Latin, Classical Chinese,Old Uyghur language,Tocharian B,Sogdian language,Greek
Founder	Mani
Origin	3rd centuryAD Parthian,Sasanian Empire
Separated from	Jewish ChristianElcesaitesect, and the teachings ofJesus,Buddha,andZoroaster
Separations	Manichaean schisms Chinese Manichaeism

A portrait of aPersianManichaean. Line drawing copy of two frescoes from cave 38B atBezeklik Grottoes.

An image of a Manichaean temple with stars and sevenfirmaments.Line drawing copy of two frescoes from cave 38B atBezeklik Grottoes.

Manichaeism(/ˌmænɪˈkiːɪzəm/;inNew Persianآیینِ مانیĀyīn-e Mānī;Chinese:Ma ni giáo;pinyin:Móníjiào) is a formermajorworld religion,founded in the 3rd century CE by theParthianprophetMani(216–274 CE), in theSasanian Empire.

Manichaeism teaches an elaboratedualistic cosmologydescribing thestrugglebetween agood,spiritualworld oflight,and anevil,material world ofdarkness.Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Mani's teaching was intended to "combine",succeed, and surpass the teachings ofPlatonism,Christianity,Zoroastrianism,Buddhism,Marcionism,HellenisticandRabbinic Judaism,Gnostic movements,Ancient Greek religion,Babylonianandother Mesopotamian religions,andmystery cults.It reveres Mani as the final prophet afterZoroaster,theGautama BuddhaandJesus Christ.

Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far throughAramaic-speaking regions.It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as theHan Dynastyand as far west as theRoman Empire.It was briefly the main rival toearly Christianityin the competition to replace classicalpolytheismbefore thespread of Islam.Under the RomanDominate,Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire.

Manichaeism has survived longer in the east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century inSouth China,contemporary to the decline of theChurch of the EastinMing China,there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially inFu gian,where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history.

While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.

An adherent of Manichaeism is called aManichaean,Manichean,orManichee,the last especially in older sources.

History

Life of Mani

Main article:Mani (prophet)

Manichaean priests, writing at their desks. Eighth or ninth century manuscript fromGaochang,Tarim Basin,China.

Yuan Chinesesilk paintingMani's Birth.

Mani was anIranianborn in 216 CE in or nearSeleucia-Ctesiphon(nowal-Mada'in,Iraq) in theParthian Empire.According to theCologne Mani-Codex,Mani's parents were members of theJewish ChristianGnosticsectknown as theElcesaites.

Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in thelate-AramaicSyriac language.The seventh, theShabuhragan,was written by Mani inMiddle Persianand presented by him toSasanian emperorShapur I.Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries.

According to one tradition, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as theManichaean Alpha betthat was used in all of the Manichaean works written within theSasanian Empire,whether they were in Syriac orMiddle Persian,as well as most of the works written within theUyghur Khaganate.The primary language ofBabylon(and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire) at that time wasEastern Middle Aramaic,which included three main dialects:Jewish Babylonian Aramaic(the language of theBabylonian Talmud),Mandaean(the language ofMandaeism), and Syriac, which was the language of Mani as well as theSyriac Christians.

A 14th-century illustration of the execution ofMani

While Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such asZoroastrianismwere still popular andChristianitywas gaining social and political influence. Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With the assistance of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. After failing to win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty and incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by Persian emperorBahram I.The date of his death is estimated at 276–277 CE.

Influences

See also:Chinese ManichaeismandDocetism

Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation,13th-century Chinese Manichaean silk painting.

Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster,and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for theentire world,calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was twelve years old and again when he was 24, and over this period he grew dissatisfied with theElcesaites,theJewish ChristianGnosticsect he was born into.Some researchers also point to an importantJaininfluence on Mani as extreme degrees ofasceticismand some specific features of Jain doctrine made the influence ofMahāvīra'sreligious community more plausible than even the Buddha.Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted fromWestern Kshatrapaterritories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs.

Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persianmagusorwarlord,earning him ire from theGreco-Roman worldbecause of it.

Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns toParadiseupon dying, but "the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies."

Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such asMandaeism,Aramaic translations ofJewish apocalypticworks similar to those found atQumran(e.g., theBook of Enochliterature), and by the Syriacdualist-Gnostic writerBardaisan(who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites and possibly influenced by their writings.

According to biographies preserved byibn al-Nadimand the Persianpolymathal-Biruni,Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" (Imperial Aramaic:תאומאtɑʔwmɑ,from which is also derived the Greek name ofThomas the Apostle,Didymus;the "twin" ),Syzygos(Koinē Greek:σύζυγος"spouse, partner", in theCologne Mani-Codex), "Double," "Protective Angel," or "Divine Self." This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into a religion. It was his "Twin" who brought Mani toself-realization.Mani claimed to be theParacleteof the Truthpromised by Jesus in the New Testament.

Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesusdepicts Jesus Christ as a Manichaean prophet. The figure can be identified as a representation of Jesus Christ by the small gold cross that sits on the redlotus thronein His left hand.

Manichaeism's views on Jesusare described by historians:

Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate identities:
(1) Jesus the Luminous,
(2) Jesus theMessiahand
(3) Jesuspatibilis(the suffering Jesus).

(1) As Jesus the Luminous... his primary role was as supreme revealer and guide and it was he who woke Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine origins of his soul and its painful captivity by the body and mixture with matter.

(2) Jesus the Messiah was a historical being who was the prophet of the Jews and the forerunner of Mani. However, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly divine, and that he never experienced human birth, as the physical realities surrounding the notions of his conception and his birth filled the Manichaeans with horror. However, the Christian doctrine of virgin birth was also regarded as obscene. Since Jesus the Messiah was the light of the world, where was this light, they reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin? Jesus the Messiah, they believed, was truly born only at his baptism, as it was on that occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death and resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only as they had no salvific value but were an exemplum of the suffering and eventual deliverance of the human soul and a prefiguration of Mani's own martyrdom.

(3) The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles in the whole of the visible universe, on the other hand, was real and immanent. This was symbolized by the mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus (Jesus patibilis) who was the life and salvation of Man. Thismystica crucifixiowas present in every tree, herb, fruit, vegetable and even stones and the soil. This constant and universal suffering of the captive soul is exquisitely expressed in one of the Coptic Manichaean psalms.

Augustine of Hippoalso noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ".Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha,Krishna,and Zoroaster in addition to Jesus himself.

Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-centuryMuslimhistorians likeal-Biruniandibn al-Nadimin hisal-Fihrist;the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets."However, given the Islamic milieu ofArabiaand Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, notMuhammad,was the "Seal of the Prophets".In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets as it is used in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who testify or attest to his message as a "seal" ).

10th century Manichaean Electae inGaochang(Khocho), China.

Other sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic originals of theBook of Enoch,2 Enoch,and an otherwise unknown section of the Book of Enoch entitledThe Book of Giants.The latter was quoted directly and expanded upon by Mani, and became one of the original six Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church. Beside brief references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources ofThe Book of Giants(which is actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century.

Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants (which were analyzed and published byJózef Milikin 1976)and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published byWalter Bruno Henningin 1943)were discovered along with theDead Sea Scrollsin theJudaean desertin the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of theUyghurManichaean kingdom inTurpan.Henning wrote in his analysis of them:

It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names ofSām,Narīmān,etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language.

By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature.This literature describes the being that the prophets saw in their ascent toHeavenas a king who sits on a throne at thehighestof the heavens. In the Manichaean description, this being, the "Great King of Honor", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light placed at the seventh of ten heavens.In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted byTheodore bar Konai,he is calledmalkā rabbā d-iqārā( "the Great King of Honor" ).

Mani was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity.

Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology.

Akshobhyain theabhiratiwith the Cross of Light, a symbol of Manichaeism.

Noting Mani's travels to theKushan Empire(several religious paintings inBamyanare attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career,Richard Foltzpostulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism:

Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect" ) and lay followers (the "hearers" ) who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhistsangha.

TheKushanmonkLokakṣemabegan translatingPure Land Buddhisttexts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving there, and the Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land scriptures, including the term "pure land"(Chinese:Tịnh thổ;pinyin:jìngtǔ) itself.However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism,Amitābha,the Buddha of Infinite Light, does not appear inChinese Manichaeism,and seems to have been replaced by another deity.

Spread

Roman Empire

A map of the spread of Manichaeism (300–500).World History Atlas,Dorling Kindersly.

Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq by 280, who was also inEgyptin 244 and 251. It was flourishing in theFaiyumin 290.

Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time ofPope Miltiades.

In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by EmperorBahram IIand the slaughter of many Manichaeans. Then, in 302, the first official reaction and legislation against Manichaeism from the Roman state was issued underDiocletian.In an official edict called theDe Maleficiis et Manichaeiscompiled in theCollatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarumand addressed to theproconsul of Africa,Diocletian wrote:

We have heard that the Manichaeans [...] have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians – a nation still hostile to us – and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing the tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent)... We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in the flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and the offenders sent to the (quarry) atPhaenoor the mines atProconnesus.And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands.

By 354,Hilary of Poitierswrote that Manichaeism was a significant force inRoman Gaul.In 381, Christians requestedTheodosius Ito strip Manichaeans of theircivil rights.Starting in 382, the emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers.

Augustine of Hippowas once a Manichaean.

Augustine of Hippo(354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman emperorTheodosius Ihad issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391. Due to the heavy persecution, the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.

According to hisConfessions,after nine or ten years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers",Augustine of Hippobecame a Christian and a potent adversary of Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his Manichaean opponentFaustus of Mileve), seeing their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation as too passive and not able to effect any change in one's life.

I still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us. It flattered my pride to think that I incurred no guilt and, when I did wrong, not to confess it... I preferred to excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me. The truth, of course, was that it was all my own self, and my own impiety had divided me against myself. My sin was all the more incurable because I did not think myself a sinner.

Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, and the hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic theology.

A 13th-century manuscript from Augustine's book VII ofConfessionscriticizing Manichaeism.

Central Asia

Amitābhain hisWestern ParadisewithIndians,Tibetans,andCentral Asians,with two symbols of Manichaeism: Sun and Cross.

SomeSogdiansin Central Asia believed in the religion.Uyghur khaganBoku Tekin (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers,the Babylonian headquarters sent high rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.

China

Main article:Chinese Manichaeism

In the east it spread along trade routes as far asChang'an,the capital ofTang China.

After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated inpeasant movements.The religion was used by many rebel leaders to mobilise followers. InSongandYuanChina, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as theRed Turbans.During the Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese asChīcài shìmó(Chinese:Dùng bữa sự ma,meaning that they "abstain from meat and worship demons" ).

An account inFozu Tongji,an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while the followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers and the religion was banned inMing Chinain 1370.While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known there in the second half of the 6th century.

The nomadicUyghur Khaganatelasted for less than a century (744- 840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city ofOrdu-Baliqon the UpperOrkhon Riveras its capital.Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that had previously been in use. It is likely that his decision was accepted by his subjects. That much results from a report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised to the Manichaen high priests (the "Elect" ) that if they would give orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests. A fragmentary manuscript found in theTurfan Oasisgives Boku Tekin the title ofzahag-i Mani( "Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani" ), a title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia.

Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect a sacred forest inOtuken.The conversion to Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century. In 840 the Uyghur Khaghanate collapsed under the attacks of theYenisei Kyrgyz,and the new Uyghur state ofQochowas established with a capital in the city ofQocho.

Al-Jahiz(776–868 or 869) believed that the peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was responsible for their later lack of military skills, and eventual decline. This, however, is contradicted by the political and military consequences of the conversion. After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in ninth century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while, before converting to Buddhism. Traces of Manicheism among the Uyghurs in Turfan may be detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts. In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the 13th century. It was theMongolsthat gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs.

Tibet

Manichaeism spread to Tibet during theTibetan Empire.There was a serious attempt made to introduce the religion to the Tibetans as the textCriteria of the Authentic Scriptures(a text attributed to Tibetan EmperorTrisong Detsen) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who engaged inreligious syncretisminto a deviating and inauthentic form.

Iran

Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along withIslamin the Muslimcaliphates.Relatively little is known about the religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among the Muslim society, especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to theSasanianswas the names of the Manichaean gods. The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam or Eve were, respectively, given the names Xradesahr, Gehmurd or Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to the Zoroastrians.Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists.

Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction,Sabuhr l.As theDenkardstates, Sabuhr, the firstking of kings,was very well known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this knowledge, Mani knew that Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had specifically stated, while introducing his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as a reform ofZarathrusta'sancient teachings.This was of great fascination to the king, as it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that incorporated all people and their different creeds. Thus, Manichaeism became popular and flourished throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years. An apologia for Manichaeism ascribed toibn al-Muqaffa'defended its phantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked thefideismof Islam and other monotheistic religions. The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community.

Tolerance towards Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I. His son,Ohrmazd,who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest, Kirdir. After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother,Wahram I,became king. Wahram I held Kirdir in high esteem as well, and he also held much different religious ideals than Ohrmazd, and his father, Sabuhr I. Due to influence from Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused Manichaeism to be diminished and weakened. Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there.

Arab world

Under the eighth-centuryAbbasid Caliphate,Arabiczindīqand the adjectival termzandaqacould denote many different things, though it seems primarily (or at least initially) to have signified a follower of Manichaeism, however its true meaning is not known.In the ninth century, it is reported that Caliphal-Ma'muntolerated a community of Manichaeans.

During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution. The third Abbasid caliph,al-Mahdi,persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who if being found guilty of heresy refused to renounce their beliefs, were executed. Their persecution was finally ended in 780s byHarun al-Rashid.During the reign of the Caliphal-Muqtadir,many Manichaeans fled fromMesopotamiatoKhorasanfrom fear of persecution and the base of the religion was later shifted toSamarkand.

Bactria

The first indications and signs of Manichaeism in Bactria were actually during Mani's lifetime. While he never physically traveled there, he did send a disciple, by the name of Mar Ammo, to spread his word. Mani "called (upon) Mar Ammo, the teacher, who knew the Parthian language and script, and was well acquainted with lords and ladies and with many nobles in those places..."

Mar Ammo indeed did travel to the old Parthian lands of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria. A translation of Persian texts state the following from the perspective of Mar Ammo: "They had arrived at the watch post of Kushān (Bactria), then the spirit of the border of the eastern province appeared in the shape of a girl, and he (the spirit) asked me 'Ammo what do you intend? From where have you come?' I said, 'I am a believer, a disciple of Mani, the Apostle.' That spirit said 'I do not receive you. Return from where you have come.'"

Despite the initial rejection Mar Ammo faced, we are told in these same Persian texts that Mani's spirit appeared to Mar Ammo in a spirit form and requested him to persevere and read the chapter, "The Collecting of the Gates" fromThe Treasure of the Living.Once he did this, spirit returned, converted, and said, "I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province. When I receive you, then the gate of the whole East will be opened in front of you." It seemed that this "border spirit" was a reference to the local Eastern Iranian goddess, Ard-oxsho, who was incredibly prevalent in Bactria.

The four primary prophets of Manichaeism in theManichaean Diagram of the Universe,from left to right:Mani,Zoroaster,BuddhaandJesus.

Syncretism and translation

Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings that were corrupted and misinterpreted by the followers of its predecessorsAdam,Abraham,Noah,Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus.Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted new deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its originalEastern Middle Aramaictexts already contained stories of Jesus.

When they moved eastward and were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities (or angels) were often transformed into the names of Zoroastrianyazatas.ThusAbbā ḏəRabbūṯā( "The Father of Greatness", the highest Manichaean deity of Light), inMiddle Persiantexts might either be translated literally aspīd ī wuzurgīh,or substituted with the name of the deityZurwān.

Similarly, the Manichaean primal figureNāšā Qaḏmāyā"The Original Man" was renderedOhrmazd Bayafter the Zoroastrian godOhrmazd.This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting withChinese Buddhism,where, for example, the original Aramaicקריאqaryā(the "call" from the World of Light to those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness) is identified in the Chinese-language scriptures withGuanyin(Quan ÂmorAvalokiteśvarain Sanskrit, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", thebodhisattvaof Compassion).

Manichaeism influenced some writing and traditions ofproto-orthodoxand other forms of Christianity, as well as doing the same for branches ofZoroastrianism,Judaism,Buddhism,andIslam.

Persecution and suppression

See also:Manichaean schisms

Manichaeism was repressed by theSasanian Empire.In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin byBahram II,and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the Roman emperorDiocletiandecreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. It was not until 372 withValentinian IandValensthat Manichaeism was legislated against again.

Theodosius Iissued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD.The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both theChristian Churchand the Roman state, and the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.

Conversion ofBögü Qaghan,third Khagan of theUyghur Khaganate,toManicheismin 762: detail of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest. 8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979).

In 732,Emperor Xuanzong of Tangbanned any Chinese from converting to the religion, saying it was a heretic religion that was confusing people by claiming to be Buddhism. However, the foreigners who followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment.After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals andTaiyuanwere closed down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the Chinese (seeCao'an). Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long.

The Manichaean temples were attacked by Chinese people who burned the images and idols of these temples. Manichaean priests were ordered to wearhanfuinstead of their traditional clothing, which was viewed as un-Chinese. In 843,Emperor Wuzong of Tanggave the order to kill all Manichaean clerics as part of theHuichang persecution of Buddhism,and over half died. They were made to look like Buddhists by the authorities; their heads were shaved, they were made to dress likeBuddhist monksand then killed.

Although the religion was mostly forbidden and its followers persecuted thereafter in China, it survives within syncretic sects throughout Fu gian in a form ofChinese Manichaeismalso called Mingjiao.Under theSong dynasty,its followers were derogatorily referred to with thechengyuDùng bữa tự ma(pinyin:chī cài sì mó) "vegetarian demon-worshippers".

Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song dynasty. They were quelled by Song China and were suppressed and persecuted by all successive governments before the MongolYuan dynasty.In 1370, the religion was banned through an edict of theMing dynasty,whoseHongwu Emperorhad a personal dislike for the religion.Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including theWhite Lotusmovement.

According toWendy Doniger,Manichaeism may have continued to exist in theXin gian gregion until theMongol conquest in the 13th century.

Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph,al-Mahdi,started a campaign of inquisition against those who were "dualist heretics" or "Manichaeans" called thezindīq.He appointed a "master of the heretics" (Arabic:صاحب الزنادقةṣāhib al-zanādiqa), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who were then examined by the Caliph. Those found guilty who refused to abjure their beliefs were executed.

This persecution continued under his successor, Caliphal-Hadi,and continued for some time during reign ofHarun al-Rashid,who finally abolished it and ended it.During the reign of the 18th Abbasid Caliphal-Muqtadir,many Manichaeans fled fromMesopotamiatoKhorasanfrom fear of persecution by him and about 500 of them assembled inSamarkand.The base of the religion was later shifted to this city, which became their new Patriarchate.

Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-centuryByzantineConstantinople, as the patriarchPhotiossummarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in hisBibliotheca.

Later movements associated with Manichaeism

During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as "Manichaean" by the Catholic Church, and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of theInquisitionin 1184.They included theCatharchurches of Western Europe. Other groups sometimes referred to as "neo-Manichaean" were thePaulicianmovement, which arose in Armenia,and theBogomilsin Bulgaria and Serbia.An example of this usage can be found in the published edition of the Latin Cathar text, theLiber de duobus principiis(Book of the Two Principles), which was described as "Neo-Manichaean" by its publishers.As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups were descendants of Manichaeism.

Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. However, these groups left few records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers.

Whether thedualismof the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars and their belief that the world was created by a Satanicdemiurgewere due to influence from Manichaeism is impossible to determine. The Cathars apparently adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization.Priscillianand his followers may also have been influenced by Manichaeism. The Manichaeans preserved manyapocryphalChristian works, such as theActs of Thomas,that would otherwise have been lost.

Legacy in present-day

Some sites are preserved inXin gian g,Zhe gian g,andFu gianinChina.TheCao'antemple is the most widely known, and best preserved Manichaean building,though it later became associated withBuddhism.Other temples in China associated with Manichaeism also exist, such as theXuanzhen Templenoted for its stele.

Chinese Manichaeanscontinue to practice the faith, mainly in Fu gian and Zhe gian g.Some platforms on theinternetand social media are trying to spread some of its teachings. Some people are registered in these electronic sources, and some scholars and students in the field of religious studies and the arts continue to study Manichaeism.

Teachings and beliefs

UyghurManichaean clergymen, wall painting from the Khocho ruins, 10th/11th century CE. Located in the Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Humboldt Forum, Berlin.

Worship of theTree of Lifein the World of Light; a Manichaean picture from theBezeklik Caves

General

Mani's teaching dealt with the origin of evil by addressing a theoretical part of theproblem of evil:denying the omnipotence of God and instead postulating two opposite powers. Manichaean theology teaches adualisticview of good and evil. A key belief in Manichaeism is that the powerful, though not omnipotent good power (God), was opposed by the eternal evil power (devil). Humanity, the world, and the soul are seen as the by-product of the battle between God's proxy, Primal Man, and the devil.

The human person is seen as a battle-ground for these powers: the soul defines the person, but it is under the influence of both light and dark. This contention plays out over the world as well as the human body—neither the Earth nor the flesh were seen as intrinsically evil, but rather possessed portions of both light and dark. Natural phenomena (such as rain) were seen as the physical manifestation of this spiritual contention. Therefore, the Manichaean view explained the existence of evil by positing a flawed creation in the formation of which God took no part and which constituted rather the product of a battle by the devil against God.

Cosmogony

Manichaean Diagram of the Universedepicts the Manichaeancosmology.

Manichaeism presents an elaborate description of the conflict between the spiritual world of light and the material world of darkness. The beings of both the world of darkness and the world of light have names. There are numerous sources for the details of the Manichaean belief. These two portions of the scriptures are probably the closest thing to the original writings in their original languages that will ever be available. These are the Syriac quotation by theChurch of the EastChristianTheodore bar Konaiin his 8th century Syriacscholion,the Ketba de-Skolion,and the Middle Persian sections of Mani'sShabuhragandiscovered atTurpan(a summary of Mani's teachings prepared forShapur I).

From these and other sources, it is possible to derive an almost complete description of the detailed Manichaean vision(a complete list of Manichaean deities is outlined below). According to Mani, the unfolding of the universe takes place with three creations:

The First Creation

Originally, good and evil existed in two completely separate realms, one the World of Light (Chinese:Minh giới), ruled by the Father of Greatness together with his five Shekhinas (divine attributes of light), and the other the World of Darkness, ruled by the King of Darkness. At a certain point, the Kingdom of Darkness notices the World of Light, becomes greedy for it, and attacks it. The Father of Greatness, in the first of three "creations" (or "calls" ), calls to the Mother of Life, who sends her son Original Man (Imperial Aramaic:Nāšā Qaḏmāyā) to battle with the attacking powers of Darkness, which include the Demon of Greed.

The Original Man is armed with five different shields of light (reflections of the fiveShekhinas), which he loses to the forces of darkness in the ensuing battle, described as a kind of "bait" to trick the forces of darkness, as the forces of darkness greedily consume as much light as they can. When the Original Man comes to, he is trapped among the forces of darkness.

The Second Creation

Then the Father of Greatness begins the Second Creation, calling to the Living Spirit, who calls to his five sons, and sends a call to the Original Man (Call then becomes a Manichaean deity). An answer (Answer becomes another Manichaean deity) then returns from the Original Man to the World of Light. The Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and his five sons begin to create the universe from the bodies of the evil beings of the World of Darkness, together with the light that they have swallowed. Ten heavens and eight earths are created, all consisting of various mixtures of the evil material beings from the World of Darkness and the swallowed light. The sun, moon, and stars are all created from light recovered from the World of Darkness. The wa xing and waning of the moon is described as the moon filling with light, which passes to the sun, then through theMilky Way,and eventually back to the World of Light.

The Third Creation

Great demons (calledarchonsin bar-Konai's account) are hung out over the heavens, and then the Father of Greatness begins the Third Creation' Light is recovered from out of the material bodies of the male and female evil beings and demons, by causing them to become sexually aroused in greed towards beautiful images of the beings of light, such as the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light. However, as soon as the light is expelled from their bodies and falls to the earth (some in the form of abortions – the source offallen angelsin the Manichaean myth), the evil beings continue to swallow up as much of it as they can to keep the light inside of them. This results eventually in the evil beings swallowing huge quantities of light, copulating, and producing Adam and Eve. The Father of Greatness then sendsJesus the Splendourto awaken Adam, and to enlighten him to the true source of the light that is trapped in his material body. Adam and Eve, however, eventually copulate, and produce more human beings, trapping the light in bodies of mankind throughout human history. The appearance of the Prophet Mani was another attempt by the World of Light to reveal to mankind the true source of the spiritual light imprisoned within their material bodies.

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  Analysis of Mani's cosmology as illustrated in theManichaean Diagram
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  Heaven scene from the Manichaean Diagram
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  "Maiden of Light" from the Manichaean Diagram

Cosmology

In the sixth century, many Manichaeans saw "the earth" as "a rectangularparallelepipedenclosed by walls of crystal, above which three [sky] domes "existed, with the other two being above and larger than the first one and second one, respectively.These represented the "threeheavens"inChaldean religion.

Outline of the beings and events in the Manichaean mythology

Beginning with the time of its creation by Mani, the Manichaean religion has had a detailed description of deities and events that took place within the Manichaean scheme of the universe. In every language and region that Manichaeism spread to, these same deities reappear, whether it is in the original Syriac quoted by Theodore bar Konai,or the Latin terminology given by Saint Augustine from Mani'sEpistola Fundamenti,or the Persian and Chinese translations found as Manichaeism spread eastward. While the original Syriac retained the original description that Mani created, the transformation of the deities through other languages and cultures produced incarnations of the deities not implied in the original Syriac writings. Chinese translations are especially syncretic, borrowing and adapting terminology common inChinese Buddhism.

The World of Light

• TheFather of Greatness(Syriac:ܐܒܐ ܕܪܒܘܬܐAbbā dəRabbūṯā;Middle Persian:pīd ī wuzurgīh,or the Zoroastrian deityZurwān;Parthian:Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn;Chinese:Vô thượng minh tôn;lit.'Unsurpassed Divinity of Light' orTát hoãnlit. 'Zurvan')
  • His Four Faces(Greek:ὁ τετραπρόσωπος πατήρ τοῦ μεγέθους;Chinese:Bốn tịch pháp thân;lit.'Four SilentDharmakayas')
    • Divinity(Middle Persian:yzd;Parthian:bg';Chinese:Thanh tịnh)
    • Light(Middle Persian and Parthian:rwšn;Chinese:Quang minh)
    • Power(Middle Persian:zwr;Parthian:z'wr';Chinese:Mạnh mẽ)
    • Wisdom(Middle Persian:whyh;Parthian:jyryft;Chinese:Trí tuệ)
  • His FiveShekhinas(Syriac:ܚܡܫ ܫܟܝܢܬܗkhamesh shkhinatei;Chinese:NămLoạiĐạiwǔ zhǒng dà,lit. 'five great ones'):

Shekhina:	Reason	Mind	Intelligence	Thought	Understanding
Syriac	ܗܘܢܐhawnā	ܡܕܥܐmaddeʻā	ܪܥܝܢܐreyānā	ܡܚܫܒܬܐmaḥšavṯɑ	ܬܪܥܝܬܐtarʻiṯā
Parthian	bām	manohmēd	uš	andēšišn	parmānag
Chinese	Tươngxiāng,"phase"	Tâmxīn,"heart-mind"	Niệmniàn,"mindfulness"	Tưsī,"thought"	Ýyì,"meaning"
Turkic	qut	ög	köngül	saqinç	tuimaq
Greek	νοῦς (Nous)	ἔννοια (Ennoia)	φρόνησις (Phronēsis)	ἐνθύμησις (Enthymēsis)	λογισμός (Logismos)
Latin	mens	sensus	prudentia	intellectus	cogitatio

• The Great Spirit(Middle Persian:Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr;Latin:Spiritus Potens)

The first creation

• The Mother of Life(Syriac:ܐܡܐ ܕܚܝܐimā dəḥayyē;Middle Persian:mʾdrʾy zyndgʾn;Chinese:Thiện mẫu Phật;lit.'Good Mother Buddha')
• The First Man(Syriac:ܐܢܫܐ ܩܕܡܝܐNāšā Qaḏmāyā;Middle Persian:Ohrmazd Bay,the Zoroastrian god of light and goodness; Latin:Primus Homo)
  • First Enthymesis(Middle Persian:hndyšyšn nxwysṯyn;Chinese:Trước ý;lit.'First Understanding')
  • His five Sons(the five Light Elements;Parthian:panj rōšn;Middle Persian:Amahrāspandān;Chinese:Năm gỗ dầu)
    • Ether(Parthian:ardāw;Middle Persian:frâwahr;Chinese:Khí)
    • Wind(Parthian andMiddle Persian:wād;Chinese:Phong)
    • Light(Parthian andMiddle Persian:rōšn;Chinese:Minh)
    • Water(Parthian andMiddle Persian:āb;Chinese:Thủy)
    • Fire(Parthian andMiddle Persian:ādur;Chinese:Hỏa)
  • His sixth Son, theAnswer-God(Syriac:ܥܢܝܐʻanyā;Parthian andMiddle Persian:xroshtag;Chinese:Thế đếnShì Zhì"The Power of Wisdom", a Chinesebodhisattva). The answer sent by theFirst Manto theCallfrom the World of Light.
• The Living Self(Parthian andMiddle Persian:grīw zīndag,grīw rōšn;Chinese:Minh tính;lit.'Light Nature') Theanima mundimade up of the five Light Elements, identical with theSuffering Jesuswho is crucified in the world.

The second creation

• The Friend of the Lights(Syriac:ܚܒܝܒ ܢܗܝܖܐḥaviv nehirē;Chinese:Nhạc minh Phật;lit.'Enjoyer of Lights')Calls to:
• The Great Builder(Syriac:ܒܢ ܖܒܐban rabbā;Chinese:Tạo tương;lit.'Creator of Forms') In charge of creating the new world that will separate the darkness from the light. He calls to:
• The Living Spirit(Syriac:ܪܘܚܐ ܚܝܐruḥā ḥayyā;Middle Persian:Mihryazd;Chinese:Tịnh sống phong;pinyin:Jìnghuófēng;Latin:Spiritus Vivens;Greek:Ζων Πνευμα). Acts as ademiurge,creating the structure of the material world.
  • His five Sons(Syriac:ܚܡܫܐ ܒܢܘܗܝḥamšā benawhy;Chinese:Ngũ đẳng kiêu kiện tử;lit.'Five Valiant Sons')
    • The Keeper of the Splendour(Syriac:ܨܦܬ ܙܝܘܐṣfat ziwā;Latin:Splenditenens;Chinese:Thúc giục quang minh sử;lit.'Urger of Enlightenment'). Holds up the ten heavens from above.
    • The King of Glory(Syriac:ܡܠܟ ܫܘܒܚܐmlex šuvḥā;Latin:Rex Gloriosus;Chinese:Địa TạngDìzàng"Earth Treasury", a Chinesebodhisattva).
    • The Adamas of Light(Syriac:ܐܕܡܘܣ ܢܘܗܪܐadamus nuhrā;Latin:Adamas;Chinese:Hàng ma sử;pinyin:Jiàngmó shǐ). Fights with and overcomes an evil being in the image of the King of Darkness.
    • The Great King of Honour(Syriac:ܡܠܟܐ ܪܒܐ ܕܐܝܩܪܐmalkā rabbā dikkārā;Dead Sea ScrollsImperial Aramaic:מלכא רבא דאיקראmalka raba de-ikara;Latin:Rex Honoris;Chinese:Mười ngày đại vương;pinyin:Shítiān Dàwáng;lit.'Ten Heavens Great King'). A being that plays a central role inThe Book of Enoch(originally written in Aramaic), as well as Mani's Syriac version of it, theBook of Giants.Sits in theseventh heavenof the ten heavens (corresponding to thecelestial spheres,the first seven of which house theclassical planets) and guards the entrance to the world of light.
    • Atlas(Syriac:ܣܒܠܐsebblā;Latin:Atlas;Chinese:Cầm thế chủ;pinyin:Chíshìzhǔ). Supports the eight worlds from below.
  • His sixth Son, theCall-God(Syriac:ܩܪܝܐqaryā;Middle Persian:Padvaxtag;Chinese:Quan ÂmGuanyin"watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion). Sent from the Living Spirit to awaken the First Man from his battle with the forces of darkness.

The third creation

• The Third Messenger(Syriac:ܐܝܙܓܕܐizgaddā;Middle Persian:narēsahyazad,Parthian:hridīg frēštag;tertius legatus)
• Jesus the Splendour(Syriac:ܝܫܘܥ ܙܝܘܐIshoʻ Ziwā;Chinese:Quang minh di số;lit.'Jesus of Bright Light' orDi số tinh cùnglit. 'Jesus the Essence of Harmony'). Sent to awaken Adam and Eve to the source of the spiritual light trapped within their physical bodies.
• The Maiden of Light(Middle Persian andParthian:qnygrwšn;Chinese:Cẩn ngươi 嚧 sân,a phonetic loan from Middle Persian)
• The Twelve Virgins of Light(Syriac:ܬܪܬܥܣܪܐ ܒܬܘܠܬܐtratʻesrā btultē;Middle Persian:kanīgān rōšnān;Chinese:Ngày cung mười hai hóa nữ;pinyin:Rìgōng shí'èr huànǚ;lit.'Sun Palace Twelve Maidens of Transformation').Reflected in the twelve constellations of theZodiac.
• The Column of Glory(Syriac:ܐܣܛܘܢ ܫܘܒܚܐesṭun šuvḥā;Middle Persian:srōš-ahrāy;Chinese:Tô lộ sa la di;pinyin:Sūlù shāluóyíandLư xá kia,Lúshěnà,both phonetic fromMiddle Persian:srōš-ahrāy). The path that souls take back to the World of Light; corresponds to theMilky Way.
• The GreatNous
  • His five Limbs(Chinese:Năm thể) (See "His Five Shekhinas"above.)
    • Reason
    • Mind
    • Intelligence
    • Thought
    • Understanding
• The Just Judge(Parthian:d'dbr r'štygr;Chinese:Bình đẳng vương;lit.'Impartial King')
• The Last God

The World of Darkness

• ThePrince of Darkness(Syriac:ܡܠܟ ܚܫܘܟܐmlex ḥešoxā;Middle Persian:Ahriman,the Zoroastrian supreme evil being)
  • His five evil kingdomsEvil counterparts of the five elements of light, the lowest being the kingdom of Darkness.
  • His son(Syriac:ܐܫܩܠܘܢAshaklun;Middle Persian:Az,from the Zoroastrian demon,Aži Dahāka)
  • His son's mate(Syriac:ܢܒܪܘܐܠNevro'el)
  • Their offspring –Adam and Eve(Middle Persian:GehmurdandMurdiyanag)
• Giants(Fallen Angels, also Abortions): (Syriac:ܝܚܛܐyaḥtē,"abortions" or "those that fell"; also:ܐܪܟܘܢܬܐ;ἘγρήγοροιEgrēgoroi,"Giants" ). Related to the story of thefallen angelsin theBook of Enoch(which Mani used extensively inThe Book of Giants), and theנפיליםnephilimdescribed in Genesis (6:1–4).

The Manichaean Church

Organization

The Manichaean Church was divided into the Elect, who had taken upon themselves the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, those who had not, but still participated in the Church. The Elect were forbidden to consume alcohol and meat, as well as to harvest crops or prepare food, due to Mani's claim that harvesting was a form of murder against plants. The Hearers would therefore commit the sin of preparing food, and would provide it to the Elect, who would in turn pray for the Hearers and cleanse them of these sins.

The terms for these divisions were already common since the days ofearly Christianity,however, it had a different meaning in Christianity. In Chinese writings, the Middle Persian and Parthian terms are transcribed phonetically (instead of being translated into Chinese).These were recorded byAugustine of Hippo.

• The Leader (Syriac:ܟܗܢܐ/kɑhnɑ/;Parthian:yamag;Chinese:Diêm mặc;pinyin:yánmò), Mani's designated successor, seated as Patriarch at the head of the Church, originally inCtesiphon,from the ninth century inSamarkand.Two notable leaders wereMār Sīsin(or Sisinnios), the first successor of Mani, andAbū Hilāl al-Dayhūri,an eighth-century leader.
• 12Apostles(Latin:magistrī;Syriac:ܫܠܝܚܐ/ʃ(ə)liħe/;Middle Persian:možag;Chinese:Mộ đồ;pinyin:mùdū). Three of Mani's original apostles were Mār Pattī (Pattikios; Mani's father),AkouasandMar Ammo.
• 72Bishops(Latin:episcopī;Syriac:ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ/ʔappisqoppe/;Middle Persian:aspasag,aftadan;Chinese:Tát sóng tắc;pinyin:sàbōsāiorChinese:Phất nhiều sinh;pinyin:fúduōdàn;see also:seventy disciples). One of Mani's original disciples who was specifically referred to as a bishop was Mār Addā.
• 360Presbyters(Latin:presbyterī;Syriac:ܩܫܝܫܐ/qaʃʃiʃe/;Middle Persian:mahistan;Chinese:Mặc hề tất đức;pinyin:mòxīxīdé)
• The general body of the Elect (Latin:ēlēctī;Syriac:ܡܫܡܫܢܐ/m(ə)ʃamməʃɑne/;Middle Persian:ardawanordēnāwar;Chinese:A la hoãn;pinyin:āluóhuǎnorChinese:Điện kia chớ;pinyin:diànnàwù)
• The Hearers (Latin:audītōrēs;Syriac:ܫܡܘܥܐ/ʃɑmoʿe/;Middle Persian:niyoshagan;Chinese:Nậu sa ngạn;pinyin:nòushāyàn)

Religious practices

Prayers

Evidently from Manichaean sources, Manichaeans observed daily prayers, either four for the hearers or seven for the elect. The sources differ about the exact time of prayer. TheFihristbyal-Nadim,points them after noon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset and at nightfall.Al-Biruniplaces the prayers at dawn, sunrise, noon, and nightfall. The elect additionally pray at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall and at midnight. Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers is probably adjusted to coincide with the public prayers for the Muslims, while Al-Biruni's report may reflect an older tradition unaffected by Islam.

When Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers had been the only detailed source available, there was a concern that these practises had been only adapted by Muslims during theAbbasid Caliphate.However, it is clear that the Arabic text provided by Al-Nadim corresponds with the descriptions of Egyptian texts from the fourth century.

Every prayer started with anablutionwith water or, if water was not available, with other substances comparable toablution in Islamand consisted of several blessings to the apostles and spirits. The prayer consisted of prostrating oneself to the ground and rising again twelve times during every prayer.During day, Manichaeans turned towards the Sun and during night towards the Moon. If the Moon is not visible at night, they turned towards north.

Evident fromFaustus of Mileve,Celestial bodiesare not the subject of worship themselves, but are "ships" carrying the light particles of the world to thesupreme god,who cannot be seen, since he exists beyond time and space, and also the dwelling places foremanationsof the supreme deity, such asJesus the Splendour.According to the writings ofAugustine of Hippo,ten prayers were performed, the first devoted to the Father of Greatness, and the following to lesser deities, spirits and angels and finally towards the elect, in order to be freed from rebirth and pain and to attain peace in the realm of light.Comparably, in theUyghurconfession, four prayers are directed to the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and the Moon, and fivefold God and thebuddhas.

Primary sources

An image of theBuddhaas one of the primary prophets on a Manichaean pictorial roll fragment fromChotscho,10th century.

Mani wroteseven books,which contained the teachings of the religion. Only scattered fragments and translations of the originals remain, most having been discovered in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century.

The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been. There are also fragments and quotations from them. A long quotation, preserved by the eighth-centuryNestorian ChristianauthorTheodore Bar Konai,shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no influence of Iranian orZoroastrianterms. The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac writings are in Aramaic. The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle PersianShabuhragan,his book dedicated to theSasanian emperor,Shapur I.

In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian divinities such asAhura Mazda,Angra Mainyu,and Āz. Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian, Parthian, andSogdian(as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers nearTurpanin what is nowXin gian g,China, during the early 1900s. However, from the vantage point of its original Syriac descriptions (as quoted by Theodore Bar Khonai and outlined above), Manichaeism may be better described as a unique phenomenon of Aramaic Babylonia, occurring in proximity to two other new Aramaic religious phenomena,Talmudic JudaismandMandaeism,which also appeared in Babylonia in roughly the third century.

The original, but now lost, six sacred books of Manichaeism were composed inSyriac Aramaic,and translated into other languages to help spread the religion. As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings passed throughMiddle Persian,Parthian,Sogdian,Tocharian,and ultimatelyUyghurandChinesetranslations. As they spread to the west, they were translated intoGreek,Coptic,andLatin.Most Manichaean texts survived only as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of their original, lost versions.

Statue of prophet Mani as the "Buddha of Light"inCao'anTemple inJin gian g, Fu gian,"a Manichaean temple in Buddhist disguise",which is considered "the only extant Manichean temple in China"

Henningdescribes how this translation process evolved and influenced the Manichaeans of Central Asia:

Beyond doubt,Sogdianwas the national language of the Majority of clerics and propagandists of the Manichaean faith in Central Asia. Middle Persian (Pārsīg), and to a lesser degree, Parthian (Pahlavānīg), occupied the position held byLatin in the medieval church.The founder of Manichaeism had employed Syriac (his own language) as his medium, but conveniently he had written at least one book in Middle Persian, and it is likely that he himself had arranged for the translation of some or all of his numerous writings from Syriac into Middle Persian. Thus the Eastern Manichaeans found themselves entitled to dispense with the study of Mani's original writings, and to continue themselves to reading the Middle Persian edition; it presented small difficulty to them to acquire a good knowledge of the Middle Persian language, owing to its affinity with Sogdian.

Originally written in Syriac

• theGospel of Mani(Syriac:ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ/ʔɛwwanɡallijon/;Koinē Greek:εὐαγγέλιον"good news, gospel" ). Quotations from the first chapter were brought inArabicbyibn al-Nadim,who lived in Baghdad at a time when there were still Manichaeans living there, in his 938 book, theFihrist,a catalog of all written books known to him.
• TheTreasure of Life
• The Treatise(Coptic:πραγματεία,pragmateia)
• Secrets
• The Book of Giants:Original fragments were discovered atQumran(pre-Manichaean) andTurpan.
• Epistles:Augustine brings quotations, in Latin, from Mani'sFundamental Epistlein some of his anti-Manichaean works.
• Psalms and Prayers:A CopticManichaean Psalm Book,discovered in Egypt in the early 1900s, was edited and published byCharles Allberryfrom Manichaean manuscripts in theChester Beatty collectionand in the Berlin Academy, 1938–9.

Originally written in Middle Persian

• TheShabuhragan,dedicated toShapur I:Original Middle Persian fragments were discovered atTurpan,quotations were brought in Arabic byal-Biruni.

Other books

• TheArdahang,the "Picture Book". In Iranian tradition, this was one of Mani's holy books that became remembered in later Persian history, and was also calledAržang,aParthianword meaning "Worthy", and was beautified with paintings. Therefore, Iranians gave him the title of "The Painter".
• TheKephalaia of the Teacher(Κεφαλαια), "Discourses", found in Coptic translation.
• On the Origin of His Body,the title of theCologne Mani-Codex,a Greek translation of an Aramaic book that describes the early life of Mani.

Non-Manichaean works preserved by the Manichaean Church

• Portions of theBook of Enochliterature such as theBook of Giants
• Literature relating to theapostle Thomas(who by tradition went to India, and was also venerated in Syria), such as portions of the SyriacThe Acts of Thomas,and thePsalms of Thomas.TheGospel of Thomaswas also attributed to Manichaeans by Cyril of Jerusalem, a fourth-century Church Father.
• The legend ofBarlaam and Josaphatpassed from an Indian story about the Buddha, through a Manichaean version, before it transformed into the story of a Christian Saint in the west.

Later works

Ma ni giáo văn hiến The Chinese Manichaean "Compendium"

Two female musicians depicted in a Manichaean text

In later centuries, as Manichaeism passed througheastern Persian-speaking landsand arrived at theUyghur Khaganate( Hồi Hột đế quốc ), and eventually the Uyghur kingdom ofTurpan(destroyed around 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwanorāfurišn) and the Parthian hymn-cycles (theHuwīdagmānandAngad Rōšnancreated byMar Ammo) were added to the Manichaean writings.A translation of a collection of these produced theManichaean Chinese Hymnscroll(Chinese:Ma ni giáo hạ bộ tán;pinyin:Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn,whichLieutranslates as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e. the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion").

In addition to containing hymns attributed to Mani, it contains prayers attributed to Mani's earliest disciples, including Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo and Mār Sīsin. Another Chinese work is a complete translation of theSermon of the LightNous,presented as a discussion between Mani and his disciple Adda.

Critical and polemic sources

Until discoveries in the 1900s of original sources, the only sources for Manichaeism were descriptions and quotations from non-Manichaean authors, either Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, or Zoroastrian ones. While often criticizing Manichaeism, they also quoted directly from Manichaean scriptures. This enabledIsaac de Beausobre,writing in the 18th century, to create a comprehensive work on Manichaeism, relying solely on anti-Manichaean sources.Thus quotations and descriptions in Greek and Arabic have long been known to scholars, as have the long quotations in Latin by Saint Augustine, and the extremely important quotation in Syriac byTheodore Bar Konai.

Patristic depictions of Mani and Manichaeism

Eusebiuscommented as follows:

The error of the Manichees, which commenced at this time.

— In the mean time, also, that madman Manes, (Mani is of Persian or Semitic origin) as he was called, well agreeing with his name, for his demoniacal heresy, armed himself by the perversion of his reason, and at the instruction of Satan, to the destruction of many. He was a barbarian in his life, both in speech and conduct, but in his nature as one possessed and insane. Accordingly, he attempted to form himself into a Christ, and then also proclaimed himself to be the very paraclete and the Holy Spirit, and with all this was greatly puffed up with his madness. Then, as if he were Christ, he selected twelve disciples, the partners of his new religion, and after patching together false and ungodly doctrines, collected from a thousand heresies long since extinct, he swept them off like a deadly poison, from Persia, upon this part of the world. Hence the impious name of the Manichaeans spreading among many, even to the present day. Such then was the occasion of this knowledge, as it was falsely called, that sprouted up in these times.

Acta Archelai

An example of how inaccurate some of these accounts could be can be seen in the account of the origins of Manichaeism contained in theActa Archelai.This was a Greek anti-Manichaean work written before 348, most well known in its Latin version, which was regarded as an accurate account of Manichaeism until refuted by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century:

In the time of the Apostles there lived a man namedScythianus,who is described as coming "from Scythia", and also as being "a Saracen by race" ( "ex genere Saracenorum" ). He settled in Egypt, where he became acquainted with "the wisdom of the Egyptians", and invented the religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism. Finally he emigrated to Palestine, and, when he died, his writings passed into the hands of his sole disciple, a certainTerebinthus.The latter betook himself to Babylonia, assumed the name of Budda, and endeavoured to propagate his master's teaching. But he, like Scythianus, gained only one disciple, who was an old woman. After a while he died, in consequence of a fall from the roof of a house, and the books that he had inherited from Scythianus became the property of the old woman, who, on her death, bequeathed them to a young man named Corbicius, who had been her slave. Corbicius thereupon changed his name to Manes, studied the writings of Scythianus, and began to teach the doctrines that they contained, with many additions of his own. He gained three disciples, named Thomas, Addas, and Hermas. About this time the son of the Persian king fell ill, and Manes undertook to cure him; the prince, however, died, whereupon Manes was thrown into prison. He succeeded in escaping, but eventually fell into the hands of the king, by whose order he was flayed, and his corpse was hung up at the city gate.

A. A. Bevan, who quoted this story, commented that it "has no claim to be considered historical".

View of Judaism in theActa Archelai

According toHegemonius' portrayal of Mani, theevil demiurgewho created the world was the JewishYahweh.Hegemonius reports that Mani said,

"It is thePrince of Darknesswho spoke withMoses,theJewsand theirpriests.Thus theChristians,the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them. "He goes on to state:" Now, he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is thearchontof Darkness, and the Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations.

Central Asian and Iranian primary sources

In the early 1900s, original Manichaean writings started to come to light when German scholars led byAlbert Grünwedel,and then byAlbert von Le Coq,began excavating atGaochang,the ancient site of the Manichaean Uyghur Kingdom near Turpan, in Chinese Turkestan (destroyed around AD 1300). While most of the writings they uncovered were in very poor condition, there were still hundreds of pages of Manichaean scriptures, written in three Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian) and old Uyghur. These writings were taken back to Germany and were analyzed and published at thePrussian Academy of Sciencesin Berlin, by Le Coq and others, such asFriedrich W. K. MüllerandWalter Bruno Henning.While the vast majority of these writings were written in a version of the Syriac script known asManichaean script,the German researchers, perhaps for lack of suitable fonts, published most of them using theHebrew Alpha bet(which could easily be substituted for the 22 Syriac letters).

Perhaps the most comprehensive of these publications wasManichaeische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und iranischen Texten(Manichaean Dogma from Chinese and Iranian texts), byErnst Waldschmidtand Wolfgang Lentz, published in Berlin in 1933.More than any other research work published before or since, this work printed, and then discussed, the original key Manichaean texts in the original scripts, and consists chiefly of sections from Chinese texts, and Middle Persian and Parthian texts transcribed with the Hebrew Alpha bet. After theNazi Partygained power in Germany, the Manichaean writings continued to be published during the 1930s, but the publishers no longer used Hebrew letters, instead transliterating the texts into Latin letters.

Coptic primary sources

Additionally, in 1930, German researchers in Egypt found a large body of Manichaean works in Coptic. Though these were also damaged, hundreds of complete pages survived and, beginning in 1933, were analyzed and published in Berlin beforeWorld War II,by German scholars such asHans Jakob Polotsky.Some of these Coptic Manichaean writings were lost during the war.

Chinese primary sources

After the success of the German researchers, French scholars visited China and discovered what is perhaps the most complete set of Manichaean writings, written in Chinese. These three Chinese writings, all found at theMogao Cavesamong theDunhuang manuscripts,and all written before the 9th century, are today kept in London, Paris, and Beijing. Some of the scholars involved with their initial discovery and publication wereÉdouard Chavannes,Paul Pelliot,andAurel Stein.The original studies and analyses of these writings, along with their translations, first appeared in French, English, and German, before and after World War II. The complete Chinese texts themselves were first published in Tokyo, Japan in 1927, in theTaishō Tripiṭaka,volume 54. While in the last thirty years or so they have been republished in both Germany (with a complete translation into German, alongside the 1927 Japanese edition),and China, the Japanese publication remains the standard reference for the Chinese texts.

Greek life of Mani, Cologne codex

In Egypt, a smallcodexwas found and became known through antique dealers inCairo.It was purchased by theUniversity of Colognein 1969. Two of its scientists, Henrichs and Koenen, produced the first edition known since as theCologne Mani-Codex,which was published in four articles in theZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.The ancientpapyrusmanuscript contained aGreektext describing the life of Mani. Thanks to this discovery, much more is known about the man who founded one of the most influential world religions of the past.

Figurative use

The terms "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are sometimes used figuratively as a synonym of the more general term "dualist"with respect to a philosophy, outlook, or world-view.The terms are often used to suggest that the world-view in question simplistically reduces the world to a struggle between good and evil. For example,Zbigniew Brzezinskiused the phrase "Manichaean paranoia" in reference to U.S. presidentGeorge W. Bush's world-view (inThe Daily Show with Jon Stewart,14 March 2007); Brzezinski elaborated that he meant "the notion that he [Bush] is leading the forces of good against the 'Axis of evil.'"Author and journalistGlenn Greenwaldfollowed up on the theme in describing Bush in his bookA Tragic Legacy(2007).

The term is frequently used by critics to describe the attitudes and foreign policies of the United States and its leaders.

PhilosopherFrantz Fanonfrequently invoked the concept of Manicheanism in his discussions of violence between colonizers and the colonized.

InMy Secret History,authorPaul Theroux's protagonist defines the word Manichaean for the protagonist's son as "seeing that good and evil are mingled." Before explaining the word to his son, the protagonist mentionsJoseph Conrad'sshort story "The Secret Sharer"at least twice in the book, the plot of which also examines the idea of the duality of good and evil.

See also

• Manichaean art
• Athinganoi,a purportedly related movement
• Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri(8th century)
• Agapius (Manichaean)(4th or 5th century)
• Akouas
• Ancient Mesopotamian religion
• The Buddha in Manichaeism
• Chinese Manichaeism
• Good and evil
• Dualism in cosmology
• Hiwi al-Balkhi
• Indo-Iranian religion
• Jesus in Manichaeism
• Mar Ammo(3rd century)
• Mazdak
• Ming Cult
• Moral realism
• Abu Isa al-Warraq
• Yazdânism
• Yazidi
• Zurvanism

References

Works cited

• Augustine (1991).Confessions.Translated byChadwick, Henry.New York:Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-281779-5.
• Beausobre, de, Isaac(1734–1739).Histoire critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme.Amsterdam: Garland Pub.ISBN978-0-8240-3552-5.
• BeDuhn, Jason David (2002).The Manichaean Body: In Discipline and Ritual.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-8018-7107-8.
• Foltz, Richard(2010).Religions of the Silk Road.New York: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-62125-1.
• Gardner, Iain;Lieu, Samuel N.C.(2004).Manichaean Texts from the Roman Empire.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-56822-7.
• La Vaissière, Etienne de, "Mani en Chine au VIe siècle",Journal Asiatique,293–1, 2005, p. 357–378.
• Lieu, Samuel N.C.(1992).Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China.Tübingen:Mohr Siebeck.ISBN978-0-7190-1088-0.
• Ma, Xiaohe; Wang, Chuan (2018)."On the Xiapu Ritual Manual Mani the Buddha of Light".Religions.9(7): 212.doi:10.3390/rel9070212.
• Runciman, Steven(1982) [1947].The Medieval Manichee: a study of the Christian dualist heresy.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-28926-9.
• Welburn, Andrew (1998).Mani, the Angel and the Column of Glory.Edinburgh: Floris.ISBN978-0-86315-274-0.
• Widengren, Geo (1965).Mani and Manichaeism.London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Further reading

• Baker-Brian, Nicholas J. (2011).Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered.London and New York. T&T Clark.
• Beatty, Alfred Chester (1938). Charles Allberry (ed.).A Manichean Psalm-Book, Part II.Stuttgart.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Cross, F. L.; E. A. Livingstone (1974).The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.London: Oxford UP:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-211545-4.
• Favre, Francois (5 May 2005).Mani, the Gift of Light.Renova symposium. Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
• Foltz, Richard(2013).Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present.London: Oneworld publications.ISBN978-1-78074-308-0.
• Gardner, Iain (2020).The Founder of Manichaeism. Rethinking the Lives of Mani.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
• Giversen, Soren (1988).The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty Library Vol. III: Psalm Book part I.(Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer.(Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988a
• Giversen, Soren (1988).The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty LibraryVol. IV: Psalm Book part II(Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer.(Cahiers D'Orientalism XVI) 1988b.
• Grousset, Rene(1939), tr. Walford, Naomi (1970),The Empire of the Steppes: A History ofCentral Asia,New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers.ISBN978-0-8135-1304-1.
• Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna(2001).Manichaean art in Berlin Collections.Turnhout.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)(Original Manichaean manuscripts found since 1902 in China, Egypt, Turkestan to be seen in the Museum of Indian Art in Berlin.)
• Heinrichs, Albert; Ludwig Koenen,Ein griechischer Mani-Kodex,1970 (ed.)Der Kölner Mani-Codex( P. Colon. Inv. nr. 4780), 1975–1982.
• Ibscher, Hugo (1938).Allberry Charles R. C.(ed.).Manichaean Manuscripts in the Chester Beatty Collection: Vol II, part II: A Manichaean Psalm Book.Stuttgart: W. Kohlammer.
• Legge, Francis (1964) [1914].Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D..New York: University Books. LC Catalog 64-24125.reprinted in two volumes bound as one
• Mani (216–276/7) and his 'biography': the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis (CMC):
• Melchert, Norman (2002).The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy.McGraw Hill.ISBN978-0-19-517510-3.
• Skjaervo, Prods Oktor (2006).An Introduction to Manicheism.
• Towers, Susanna (2019).Constructions of Gender in Late Antique Manichaean Cosmological Narrative.Brepols. Turnhout.
• Wurst, Gregor (July 2001). "Die Bema-Psalmen".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.60(3): 203–204.doi:10.1086/468925.

External links

Outside articles

• Catholic Encyclopedia – ManichæismArchived8 May 2020 at theWayback Machinepublic domain, published 1917.
• International Association of Manichaean StudiesArchived15 August 2004 at theWayback Machine
• Manichaean and Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China)Archived19 July 2008 at theWayback Machine
• Religions of Iran: ManichaeismArchived18 December 2007 at theWayback Machineby I.J.S. Taraporewala
• Chuyên đề nghiên cứu – ma ni giáo nghiên cứuArchived4 March 2016 at theWayback Machine
• 《 quang minh hoàng đế 》 minh tôn giáo bối cảnh thư (1)Archived5 January 2020 at theWayback Machine

Manichaean sources in English translation

• A summary of the Manichaean creation mythArchived2 November 2005 at theWayback Machine
• Manichaean WritingsArchived8 July 2005 at theWayback Machine
• Manicheism.Complete bibliography and selection of Manichaean source texts in PDF format:
  • A thorough bibliography and outline of Manichaean Studies
  • A number of key Manichaean texts in English translationArchived24 September 2015 at theWayback Machine
• The Book of the GiantsArchived17 July 2019 at theWayback MachinebyW.B. Henning,1943
• Nag Hammadi and Manichaean StudiesArchived16 November 2021 at theWayback Machine(NHMS) series fromBrill(various volumes containing English translations of Manichaean texts)

Secondary Manichaean sources in English translation

• St. Augustine Against the Fundamental Epistle of Manichaeus
• Acta Archelai

Manichaean sources in their original languages

• Photos of the Entire Koeln Mani-KodexArchived13 March 2007 at theWayback Machine(Greek).
• The Syriac Manichaean work quoted by Theodor bar Khonai
• Photos of the Original Middle Persian Manichaean Writings/Fragments Discovered at Turpan(The index of this German site can be searched for additional Manichaean material, including photos of the original Chinese Manichaean writings)
• "Sermon of the Soul", in Parthian and SogdianArchived24 December 2013 at theWayback Machine
• Middle Persian and Parthian TextsArchived31 July 2007 at theWayback Machine
• D. N. MacKenzie,Mani's Šābuhragān,pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34,[1]pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310[2].
• Chinese Manichaean Scriptures:Ma ni giáo tàn kinh mộtArchived14 December 2010 at theWayback Machine( "Incomplete Sutra one of Manichaeism" ) &Ma ni quang Phật giáo pháp nghi lượcArchived22 June 2011 at theWayback Machine( "The Mani Bright Buddha teaching plan" ) &Hạ bộ tánArchived22 June 2011 at theWayback Machine( "The Lower Part Praises" )

Secondary Manichaean sources in their original languages

• Augustine's Contra Epistolam Manichaei(Latin)