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Marble

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the rock. For the toy, seeMarble (toy).For other uses, seeMarble (disambiguation).
Marble
Metamorphic rock
Carrara marblequarryinItaly
Composition
Mostlycalciteordolomite
Physical Characteristics
FabricTypically not foliated
Relationships
Protolithscarbonate minerals,Limestone,Dolomite

Marbleis ametamorphic rockconsisting of carbonate minerals (most commonlycalcite(CaCO3) ordolomite(CaMg(CO3)2)) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure.[1]It has acrystallinetexture, and is typically notfoliated(layered), although there are exceptions.

Ingeology,the termmarblerefers to metamorphosedlimestone,but its use instonemasonrymore broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone.[2]Marble is commonly used forsculptureand as abuilding material.

Etymology[edit]

TheMarble Boat,alakeside pavilionin theSummer PalaceinBeijing,China

The word "marble" derives from theAncient Greekμάρμαρον(mármaron),[3]fromμάρμαρος(mármaros), "crystalline rock, shining stone",[4][5]perhaps from the verbμαρμαίρω(marmaírō), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";[6]R. S. P. Beekeshas suggested that a "Pre-Greekorigin is probable ".[7]

Thisstemis also the ancestor of theEnglishword "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like."[8]While the English term "marble" resembles theFrenchmarbre,most otherEuropean languages(with words like "marmoreal" ) more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.[9]

TheTaj Mahalis clad entirely in marble

Geology[edit]

Folded and weathered marble atGeneral Carrera Lake,Chile

Marble is a rock resulting frommetamorphismofsedimentarycarbonate rocks,most commonlylimestoneordolomite.Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonatecrystals.Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.

Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls andveinsof many colored marble varieties, sometimes calledstriations,are usually due to various mineral impurities such asclay,silt,sand,iron oxides,orchertwhich were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due toserpentineresulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite withsilicaimpurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.[citation needed]

Chemistry[edit]

Degradation by acids[edit]

Acidsreact with the calcium carbonate in marble, producingcarbonic acid(which decomposes quickly to CO2and H2O) and other soluble salts:[10]

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Outdoor marble statues,gravestones,or other marble structures are damaged byacid rainwhether bycarbonation,sulfationor the formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles).[10]Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products.

Crystallization[edit]

Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO3). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF6) andhydrochloric acid(HCl) taking place.

CaCO3(s) + MgSiF6(l) + 2HCl (l) → MgCl2(s) + CaSiF6(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF6) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface.

The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H2C2O4), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is as follows:

CaCO3(s) + H2C2O4(l) → CaC2O4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed.[11]

Microbial degradation[edit]

The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacteriumMethylophaga muratawas isolated from deteriorating marble in theKremlin.[12]Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble fromMilan Cathedral;blackCladosporiumattacked driedacrylic resin[13]using melanin.[14]

Types and features[edit]

Main article:List of types of marble
TheLibrary of CelsusinEphesus,Turkey.Turkey is the largest marble exporter in the world.
Marble wall ofRuskeala,Republic of Karelia,Russia
A piece of bluecalcite marblefrom thePrecambrian periodinNew York State,United States

Examples of notable marble varieties and locations[edit]

Marble Color Location Country
Bianco Sivec white nearPrilep(Прилеп),Pelagonia(Пелагониски) North Macedonia
Carrara marble white or blue-gray Carrara,Tuscany Italy
Statuario marble white, golden, black Carrara,Apuan Alps Italy
Creole marble white and blue/black Pickens County, Georgia United States
Etowah marble pink, salmon, rose Pickens County, Georgia United States
Hanbaiyu marble white Quyang County,Hebei China
Makrana marble white Makrana,Nagaur district,Rajasthan India
Murphy marble white PickensandGilmerCounties,Georgia United States
Nero Marquina marble black Markina-Xemein,Bizkaia,Basque County Spain
Parian marble pure-white, fine-grained Island ofParos(Πάρος),South Aegean(Νοτίου Αιγαίου) Greece
Pentelic marble[15] pure-white, fine-grained semitranslucent Mount Pentelicus(Πεντελικό όρος),Attica(Ἀττική) Greece
Prokonnesos marble white Marmara Island,Sea of Marmara Turkey
Ruskeala marble white nearRuskeala(Рускеала),Karelia(Карелия) Russia
Rușchița marble[16] white, pinkish, reddish Poiana Ruscă Mountains,Caraș-Severin County Romania
Swedish green marble green nearKolmården,Södermanland Sweden
Sylacauga marble white Talladega County, Alabama United States
Venčacmarble white Venčac mountain nearAranđelovac Serbia
Vermont marble white Proctor, Vermont United States
Wunsiedel marble white Wunsiedel,Bavaria Germany
Yule marble uniform pure white nearMarble, Colorado United States

Features[edit]

Marble is a rock composed ofcalciumandmagnesium carbonate,mostly white and pink.[1]Common marble varieties are granular limestone ordolomite.The hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and theinternal stressdisappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It is a very popular building material.

The following table is a summary of the features of Marble.[17]

Colour White, Pink, Black etc
Texture granular
Grain size medium grained
Mineralogy calcite
Hardness hard
Other features generally gritty to touch
Uses building stone

Uses[edit]

Marble products inRomblon,Philippines
Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial)sculpted byDaniel Chester Frenchfrom Georgia Marble in 1920

Sculpture[edit]

White marble has been prized for its use insculptures[18]sinceclassical times.This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relativeisotropyand homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the lowindex of refractionof calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form.[19]

Construction[edit]

Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite,dolomiteor serpentine that is capable of taking a polish.[20]More generally inconstruction,specifically thedimension stonetrade, the termmarbleis used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example,Tennessee marbleis really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroonOrdovicianlimestone, thatgeologistscall theHolston Formation.

Ashgabat,the capital city ofTurkmenistan,was recorded in the 2013Guinness Book of Recordsas having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.[21]

Production[edit]

Mining of Karibib Marble (2018)
22°06′16″S015°48′48″E/ 22.10444°S 15.81333°E/-22.10444; 15.81333(Marmor)
See also:Quarrying
Marble quarry in Jaipur, India. Large rock faces that have been cut to vertical angles, with heavy equipment such as excavators in the picture.
Marble quarry inJaipur,India
Marble plant workers inRomblon,Philippines

The extraction of marble is performed byquarrying.Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods.[22]Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition.

Locations[edit]

In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.ItalyandChinawere the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, whileSpainandIndiaproduced 9% and 8%, respectively.[23]

In 2018Turkeywas the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed byItalywith 18% andGreecewith 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 wasChinawith a 64% market share, followed byIndiawith 11% and Italy with 5%.[24]

Ancient times[edit]

White marbles throughout theMediterranean basinwere widely utilized during theRomanperiod. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across theItalian Peninsula,mainland Greece,theAegean Islands,Asia Minor,and smaller hubs like those in theIberian Peninsula.The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to the widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, andsarcophagi.There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD.[25]

United States[edit]

According to theUnited States Geological Survey,U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely groundcalcium carbonateand the rest wasconstruction aggregate.For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.

Palestine[edit]

The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $400–$450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of the nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel.

Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and that the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone.[26]

Occupational safety[edit]

Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such assilicosis.Skin and eye problems are also a potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures.[27][26]

In the United States, theOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3total exposure and 5 mg/m3respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH) has set arecommended exposure limit(REL) of 10 mg/m3total exposure and 5 mg/m3respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[28][non sequitur]

Dust,debrisand temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees.[29]For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provideeye protectionequipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers onoccupational healthrisks and strengthen preventive measures.[29]

Cultural associations[edit]

Jadwiga of Poland's sarcophagus by Antoni Madeyski,Wawel Cathedral,Kraków

As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (seeclassical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material.[30]

Places named after the stone includeMarblehead, Massachusetts;Marblehead, Ohio;Marble Arch,London; theSea of Marmara;India'sMarble Rocks;and the towns ofMarble, Minnesota;Marble, Colorado;Marble Falls, Texas,andMarble Hill, Manhattan, New York.TheElgin Marblesare marble sculptures from theParthenonin Athens that are on display in theBritish Museum.[31]

Impact on the environment[edit]

This is a pile of marble waste inAliveri.

Total worldquarryingproduction in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production.[29]In the process of marble mining and processing, there will be a large amount of non-degradable waste, which will cause serious damage to the environment and threaten the life of animals and plants.[1]For example, the poor management of mining activities has resulted in a large amount of waste rocks, and the waste is thrown by the river, polluting the surrounding water sources, causing groundwater pollution, and endangering human health. According to the research of water samples around the marble mine, it was found that the number ofcationsandanionsin the water increased.[1]

Sustainability[edit]

Marble[1]sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints.[32]Using groundcalcium carbonateas a filler in paint production can improve the brightness,hiding powerand application performance of paint, and can also replace expensivepigmentssuch astitanium dioxide.[32]Recycling of marble waste leads to a large amount of waste not being landfilled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment.

Cleaning and preservation[edit]

The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily stained by colored liquids and scratches easily. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important.[33]

Preservation[edit]

  • Prevent sand and dust from contacting the marble surface.[33]
  • Avoid corroding marble surfaces with alcohol, color and acidic liquids.[33]

Cleaning[edit]

  • As a floor material, marble is easy to scratch. You can first use a vacuum cleaner to suck away the grit and dust on the marble floor, and then use a steam cleaner to remove other dirt.[34]
  • A mild, pH-neutral, non-abrasive soap should be used for cleaning marble surfaces. Wipe with a soft foam cotton or rag.[34]

Gallery[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  18. ^PROCEEDINGS 4th International Congress on "Science and Technology for the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Basin" VOL. I.Angelo Ferrari. p.371.ISBN9788896680315.white marble prized for use to make sculptures.
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  20. ^Marble Institute of America pp. 223 Glossary
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External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toMarble.
Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Marble".
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