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Mariachi

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This article is about the musical genre. For the film, seeEl Mariachi.
Mariachi
Stylistic origins
Cultural origins18th century, Cocula, Jalisco, Mexico (Jalisco,Colima,Michoacán,Nayarit)
Subgenres
Mariachi tradicional
Regional scenes
  • Mexico
  • Colombia
  • Costa Rica
  • Ecuador
  • Chile
  • Guatemala
  • Peru
  • United States
  • Venezuela
  • Argentina
  • El Salvador
Other topics
Mariachi, string music, song and trumpet
CountryMexico
Reference00575
RegionLatin America and the Caribbean
Inscription history
Inscription2011 (6th session)
ListRepresentative

Mariachi(US:/ˌmɑːriˈɑːtʃi/,UK:/ˌmær-/,Spanish:[maˈɾjatʃi]) is an ensemble of musicians that typically playranchera,theregional Mexicanmusic dating back to at least the 18th century, evolving over time in the countryside of various regions of westernMexico.[1]The usual mariachi group today consists of as many as eight violins, two trumpets and at least one guitar, including a high-pitchedvihuelaand an acoustic bass guitar called aguitarrón,and all players taking turns singing lead and doing backup vocals.

During the 19th- and 20th-century migrations from rural areas intoGuadalajara,along with the Mexican government's promotion of national culture, mariachi came to be recognized as a distinctly Mexicanson.Modifications of the music include influences from other music such aspolkasandwaltzes,the addition of trumpets and the use ofcharro outfitsby mariachi musicians. The musical style began to take on national prominence in the first half of the 20th century, with its promotion at presidential inaugurations and on the radio in the 1920s. In 2011,UNESCOrecognized mariachi as anIntangible Cultural Heritagein hopes of being a protected element of heritage; it joins six other entries on the Mexican list of that category.[2]

Song styles performed with mariachi includerancheras,corridos,cumbias,boleros,ballads,sones,huapangos,jarabes,danzones,joropos,pasodobles,marches,polkas,waltzesandchotís.Most song lyrics are about machismo, love, betrayal, death, politics, revolutionary heroes, and country life.

Name

[edit]

The origin of the word is disputed, but prominent theories attribute it to deep roots. One states that it comes from the name of the wood used to make the dance platform.[3][4]Another states thatmariachicomes from the indigenous name of a tree calledpillaorcirimo;yet another states that it came from an image locally calledMaría H(pronouncedMari-Ache).[4][5]

The most distant reference documented are more than 100 certificates of baptisms, burials and marriages in which the Mariachi ranch appears, between 1832 and 1850. It was located near the river Santiago, inNayarit.[6]

The wordmariachiwas once thought to have derived from the French wordmariage( "marriage" ), dating from theFrench intervention in Mexicoin the 1860s, related to the music's appearance at weddings. This was a common explanation on record jackets and travel brochures but was disproven with the appearance of documents that showed that the word existed before this invasion:[7] in 1981, a letter written by Catholic priest Cosme Santa Ana to the archbishop was discovered in the archives of a church, where he complains about the noise as well as the drinking and gambling antics of the "mariachis" and dated in 1852, long before the French occupation.[8]

Origins

[edit]
Figures depicting an old-style mariachi band in clay by José Guadalupe Panduro ofTonalá, Jalisco,on display at theMuseo de Arte Popularin Mexico City

Prior to thearrival of the Spanish,indigenous music was played with rattles, drums, flutes, and conch-shell horns as part of religious celebrations. The Spanish introduced violins, guitars, harps,brass instruments,andwoodwinds,which mostly replaced the native instruments. The Europeans introduced their instruments to use during Mass, but they were quickly adapted to secular events.[3][5]Indigenous andmestizopeoples learned to play and make these instruments, often giving them modified shapes and tunings. In addition to instruments, the Spanish introduced the concept of musical groups—which, in the colonial period, generally consisted of two violins, a harp, and various guitars. These groups were based upon mestizaje culture and gave rise to a number of folk musical styles in Mexico.[3]

One of these folk musical styles was theson.This music featured string instruments.Sonmusic divided into various regional varieties; the variety popular in the Jalisco area was calledson jalisciense,whose best known song, also referred to as "the mariachi national anthem",[9]is "La Negra".[10]Modern mariachi music developed from thissonstyle, withmariachias an alternative name forson jalisciense.Early mariachi players did not look like those of today; they played only string instruments such as guitars and harps and dressed in typical peasant clothing: white pants and shirts withhuarache sandals.[5][10]Those who could play theson jalisciense/mariachi music could find work athaciendasat a higher rate than those who could not.[5]

Mariachi band playing at the Tenampa in Mexico City
The Orquestra Típica Mexicana led byCarlo CurtiinColumbus, Ohio,1885

The distinction of mariachi from the older son jalisciense occurred slowly sometime during the 19th century. The music originated in the center-west of Mexico. Most claims for its origin lie in the state of Jalisco but neighboring states of Colima, Nayarit, and Michoacán have also claimed it. However, by the late 19th century, the music was firmly centered in Jalisco.[11]Most legends put the origin of the modern mariachi in the town ofCocula, Jalisco.[3]

Mariachi woman in modern attire playing the violin

The distinction betweensonand modern mariachi comes from the modification of the music. By the end of the nineteenth century, the European art music tradition was firmly transplanted to Mexico, with opera, salon music, waltzes, and more written and performed both by Europeans and Mexicans in the country. One variety was the salon orchestras calledorquestas típicasthat performed in more rural settings, notably in traje decharro outfits.This use of the traje de charro outfit was repeated with urban mariachi in the 1920s.

Mariachi singer

The traje de charro outfit is widely considered to be one of the two major changes that occurred during the Golden Age, the other being the introduction of trumpets.[12]The traje de charro outfit was also used in the national Orquestra Típica Mexicana ( "Mexican Typical Orchestra" ), organized in 1884 byCarlo Curti,and touring the United States and Mexico as part of a presentation of nationalism for the Mexican presidentPorfirio Diaz.[13]Curti's Orquestra Típica Mexicana has been called the "predecessor of the mariachi bands".[14]Traje de charro is heavily inspired by cowboys and features very symbolic sombreros, tight fitting pants, ruffled shirts, and jackets with heavy embroidery and embellishments throughout all the pieces.[15]

After theMexican Revolution,manyhaciendashad to let workers go, including mariachis. Groups began to wander and play for a fee, which obliged them to incorporate other music into their repertoires, including waltzes and polkas. It also required them to play in public venues. From the late 19th century to the 1930s, mariachi groups were semi-professional.[5]

In the early 20th-century United States, record companies began actively recording rural music in other parts of the world. One of these was a recording calledCuarteto CoculensebyColumbia,EdisonandVictorin 1908 and 1909, recognized as one of the "first" mariachi recordings. The music also gained attention in Mexico City when a wealthyhaciendafamily brought an early mariachi from Cocula to play for PresidentPorfirio Díazin 1905.[16]

Modern development

[edit]
Mariachi band performingEl Son de la Negraat theXochimilcocanals.

The common perception of the music and look of mariachi developed in the 20th century, as the music was transformed from a regional rural folk music to an urban phenomenon that came to represent Mexico.[11] The music was first introduced to Mexico City in 1905.[16]During this time, many farm workers moved to the city, including those from Jalisco, which settled aroundPlaza Garibaldi.[17]These mariachi musicians developed new practices, such as performances in plazas and restaurants. However, it also continued its more traditional venues such as serenades, and performances at major family events.

During this time, the Mexican government was heavily involved in cultural promotion as a way to create a unified Mexican identity after the end of the Mexican Revolution. One of these efforts was the promotion of mariachi as an international symbol of Mexican identity, first with radio and sound recordings and later with films.[18]

Mexico built a nationwide radio broadcasting network in the 1920s such asXEBandXEW,which began broadcasting mariachi music as a media production, rather than as a music for social events.[19]This music was already being modified in part due to the advent of sound recording. For example, mostson jaliscensesongs were longer than the standard three-and-a-half minutes of the then-standard 78 rpm record, forcing the shortening of tunes. Around the same time, the popularity ofjazzandCuban musicintroduced the trumpet into mariachi, pushing the violins into second place and in some cases, replacing the harp.[5]

Mario Santiago and Silvestre Vargas in a musical presentation, 1958–1959

The most prized of the mariachis remained those from the state of Jalisco, particularly the areas of Cocula andTecalitlán.They represented Mexico to the people during the Independence Day celebrations in Mexico City in 1933 as well as duringLázaro Cárdenas' election campaign in 1936.[5]

Thecharrotradition was strong in Jalisco, especially in a region calledLos Altos.After the Revolution, thecharreadabecame a national sport in Mexico and rings were constructed specifically for them, followed by professional charro associations. With the breakup of the largehaciendas,charros were no longer economically necessary but were used as a cultural ideal, especially by the film industry in the mid-20th century. The first charro movies date from the 1920s, but the first to sing mariachi wasTito GuízarinAllá en el Rancho Grandein 1936. The character was played byJorge Negretein films such as¡Ay, Jalisco... no te rajes!and¡Así se quiere en Jalisco!The main characters used his ability to sing mariachi as a way to show strength, virility, and aesthetic beauty.[19]Its use in film also made the music popular and a symbol of ethnic pride for Mexican Americans in the United States.

However, these films also promoted a negative perception of mariachi music. During the early 20th century, mariachi was seen as lower class, and belonging in bars. Films from this period associated the charros and mariachi music withmachismo,womanizing and drinking, especially oftequila.[5]This perception would change in the latter half of the 20th century, but the music remains strongly associated with tequila.[5]

Lorenzo Negrete,grandson ofJorge Negrete,singing Mariachi music.

Mariachi music and musicians became more professional with more formal training starting in the late 1940s and early 1950s, principally due to the success of a major mariachi by the name ofMariachi Vargas.Their appearance in many films, backing many singing stars, and their hiring of formal musicians prompted other mariachis to do the same. The group also expanded, adding trumpets, violins and even a classical guitar to become a kind of orchestra, keeping the traditionalson/mariachi base while integrating new musical ideas and styles.[3]Arrangers likeRubén Fuentesincorporated classical influence. One other innovation, in contrast to the machismo of the style, were the first female mariachi performers,Lola BeltránandLucha Villa.One night Mariachi Vargas put Beltrán on stage when she was a teenager. Her versions of "Cucurrucucu Paloma" and "Tres Dias" are now considered classics.[10]

Many of the traditional sounds of Cocula were lost as mariachi groups incorporated other musical styles that were popular on the radio.[10]New influences have come into the tradition from the Mexican American community in the United States.[8]In both countries, however, the learning of traditional pieces and repertory is still stressed to form a base.[19]

The International Mariachi Festival in Guadalajara is an annual ten-day event that attracts more than 500 mariachis, who perform in concert halls and city streets. Past performers include Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán,Mariachi los Camperos(led byNati Cano) andMariachi América de Jesús Rodríguez de Hijar.[20]

In Mexico City, the center of mariachi music remains Garibaldi Plaza. Mariachi musicians fill the plaza to solicit gigs, from individual songs for passers-by to being hired for events such as weddings and baptisms. They even stand onEje Centralin front of the plaza to flag down passing cars. In 2010, the government renovated the plaza to make it more tourist-friendly, adding new paving, gardens, police, security cameras, painted facades, and a museum dedicated to mariachi and tequila. Although mariachis can be hired in Mexico City over the phone or on the internet, many people still prefer to come to the plaza, hear the musicians and haggle over the price. About 2,500 mariachis hold union cards to work in the plaza, but as many as 4,000 may circulate through on a busy weekend.[17]

Groups

[edit]
Mariachi group playing at the 10th-anniversary celebration of Wikipedia in Guadalajara

The size of a mariachi group varies depending on the availability of musicians.[4]The usual mariachi group today consists of as many as eight violins, two trumpets and at least one guitar. Traditional mariachi guitars include thevihuela,a high-pitched, round-backed guitar that provides rhythm, and a bass guitar called aguitarrón,which also provides rhythm. Sometimes a Mexican folk harp provides bass and ornaments the melody. All are Mexican variations of European instruments.[3][4]There is generally no lead singer as in other kinds of groups, with all players singing choruses and taking turns singing the lead. Often the lead singer is assigned to a certain song due to voice qualities. Mariachi vocalization shows influences from a number of styles such asbolero(a romantic style),huapango(using falsetto),son jalisciense(an aggressive style) and more. Voices must be strong to be heard over amplified instruments.[4]Vocal style emphasizes operatic qualities, and instrumental performance demonstrates a level of virtuosity that reflects advanced musical training. Historically, mariachi groups have been made up of men, but there is growing acceptance of female mariachis.[4]

Mariachi guitarrón player

As mariachi groups are expected to play requests, they may need to know hundreds of songs.[21]Most songs are about machismo, love, betrayal, death, politics, revolutionary heroes and even animals and country life from the genre's origins as ruralsonmusic. One particularly famous song is "La Cucaracha"(" The Cockroach ").[5][21]

Most mariachi groups are associated with family and religious celebrations along withserenades.A serenade in the Mexican culture is used to profess your love or show admiration for a person. Mariachis are most widely known to serenade during birthday celebrations. One of the most common pieces played by mariachis is "Las Mañanitas",for birthdays and celebrations of patron saints.[3]

In Mexico, mariachi music can also be found as part of Catholic Mass. The Misa panamericana is a mariachi folk mass sung in Spanish with new arrangements of classic hymns such as "Kyrie Eleison".This innovation began in 1966 by Canadian priest Jean Marc Leclerc and it moved from a small church in Cuernacava in the 1960s to theCuernavaca Cathedral.[3]Mariachi mass grew because it was heavily involved in community, and was spurred onwards by the Chicano movement, spreading from Mexico to the United States and onwards.[22]

Mariachi Vargas

[edit]
Silvestre Vargas(1901-1985),violinistand musician of theMariachi Vargasfrom 1921 to 1975, director from 1931 to 1955
Mariachi Vargas in 1950

Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlánis recognized as the oldest mariachi ensemble, founded byGaspar Vargasin the late 1890s.[3]They moved from Jalisco to Mexico City and performed for the inauguration of PresidentLázaro Cárdenas.[3]Mariachi Vargas became famous accompanying singers such asLuis Miguel,Lola Beltrán,and Pedro Infante.[23]Mariachi Vargas's first recording was in 1937, the same year they appeared inAsi es mi Tierra.They appeared in over 200 films in the 20th century.[24]Silvestre Vargas took over Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán from his father in 1958 and soon after hired a trained musician,Ruben Fuentes,as musical director. Fuentes along with Vargas were instrumental in the standardization of much of mariachi music, arranging traditional songs and writing new ones that would be performed by many of the legendary performers of the mid-20th century, such as Pedro Infante, Miguel Aceves Mejía, Lola Beltrán and José Alfredo Jiménez.[3]Mariachi Vargas still remains, tracing its history in terms of generations, starting in the 1890s, with these generations maintaining the group's authenticity as a mariachi while the music has evolved. The last Vargas associated with the group died in 1985. That the group still considers itself the original group comes from the notion of passing on the music by generations of musicians, as the originalson jaliscensewas learned.[25]

United States and further afield

[edit]
See also:Mexican music in Chile
GeorgeandLaura Bushat the White House with MariachiCampanas de América

Regional Mexicanradio stations in theUnited Statesinclude mariachi music in their programming. The most popularLatin musicformat in the US, the music style is well recognized throughout the country. The United States military has an official mariachi band in theNew Mexico National Guard,called Mariachi Nuevo México; this pays homage to the state ofNew Mexico'sHispanoandMexican-Americanheritage.

TheMariachi Divas de Cindy Sheais an all-female Mariachi based inLos Angeles,California,founded in 1999 by Cindy Shea. In 2009, they became the first all-female mariachi nominated for aGrammy Award,and the first to win one.[26]As of 2014, the mariachi has been nominated for five Grammy awards, winning twice. They are the official Mariachi of theDisneyland resort.[27]

The promotion of mariachi as representative of Mexico has led to the formation of mariachi groups in many countries such asArgentina,Aruba,Egypt,Chile,Cuba,Spain,Guatemala,Uruguay,Peru,Brazil,Colombia,EcuadorandVenezuela,with groups from these and other countries participating in Guadalajara's International Mariachi and Charreria Conference.[2][20][28]

The music has a strong following in the US, with top groups spending a lot of time on tour.[21]Mariachi Los Camperosreceived aGrammynomination for best Mexican-American album.[21]Academic programs allow for instruction by famous mariachi groups and the opportunity to win awards.

The first mariachi groups in the United States were from California. Nati Cano was born in Jalisco in 1939 and moved toLos Angelesin 1959. He played in many mariachi groups backing singers but felt mariachi could stand alone. In 1969 he opened a restaurant called La Fonda in Los Angeles, which featured his group, Los Camperos, as part of a dinner show. The success of this enterprise, and of Los Camperos in general, have inspired many mariachi groups in the United States.[8]In the late 1980s, pop starLinda Ronstadtrecorded "Canciones de Mi Padre" and "Más Canciones" with Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán and others, which helped promote its popularity among Mexican Americans and to non-Mexican Americans.[19]

Lupita Infanteis an American singer-songwriter. Her paternal grandparents are Mexican performersLupita Torrentera[es]andPedro Infante.[29][30]

Some U.S. public schools offer mariachi as part of classes.[31]The first student mariachi group was begun in 1961 at theUniversity of California, Los Angeles.This prompted the creation of other student organizations in other parts of California and then in Texas, where the first mariachi festival was held in 1979.[32]Since then, a strong synergy between academic programs and mariachi festivals has developed, which feature students and give mariachi classes and workshops.[33]This festival led to excitement in the Texas board of education, and soon Zeke Castro, a many award winning educator, was hired to teach mariachi.[34]

Once school programs were limited to border areas such asSan AntonioandTucson,but they have spread across the southwest and into other parts of the United States, especially since the 1990s. There are at least 500 schools offering classes along with local and state competitions.[31]In some US schools, mariachi ensembles have replaced school bands. Professional groups such asMariachi Cobre,which regularly performs atDisney World,also spend time teaching in public schools.

In areas with large Mexican-American populations, mariachis are hired for events outside this ethnic group as well.[8]Outside of schools, the most important venue for the music in the United States is mariachi festivals, with the longest-running festivals in Tucson andFresno.[35]The Tucson International Mariachi Conference began in 1982 and showcases over 500 elementary, middle, and high schools and college mariachi players.[36]The Las Vegas International Mariachi Festival, established in 1991, is televised onTelemundoandPBSand has headlined artists such asPedro Fernández,Ana Gabriel,American-born mariachi singerPepe Aguilarand more.[37]

María José Quintanilla,aChileansinger ofranchera

The educational movement is controversial with some trained in the traditional manner, who are skeptical about these programs and their potential to change the tradition. The changes, especially standardization of publishing, are slowly impacting mariachi in Mexico. One difficulty of arranging mariachi pieces is that theson jaliscensethat mariachi is based on alternates between3
4and6
8time.Much of the published mariachi music is meant for people already familiar with the music to serve as guides, not for novices. On the other hand, many schools have problems recruiting mariachi instructors as many of these do not have required teaching credentials. For this reason, schools often hire trained musicians from outside the mariachi tradition. Many traditional mariachis are concerned that standardization will lead to the genre becoming rule-bound and so restrict improvisation.[38]

Other innovations in the United States have been the incorporation of styles of artists such asElvis Presley,Freddy Fender,Glenn Miller,Marty Robbins,andJohnny Cash,as well as the heavy-metal mariachi bandMetalachi.[39]Another is the encouragement of female mariachis, including all-female mariachi groups such asMariachi Mujer 2000,Mariachi Reyna de Los Angeles andMariachi Divas de Cindy Shea.Mariachi Mujer has performed with Mexican artists such asVikki Carr,Pablo Montero,Gerardito FernandezandNydia Rojas.Mariachi Divas have won twoGrammy Awards,have toured extensively in the United States and are the official mariachi ofDisneyland ResortinAnaheim.[21]New York's first international all-female mariachi[40]is 2015Latin Grammy[41]nominatedMariachi Flor de Toloache,who are featured inDan Auerbach'sThe Arcs.An all-female mariachi in London, UK,Mariachi Las Adelitas UK,plays traditional Mexican mariachi music as well as some English-language covers in mariachi style.[42]

English singerSophie Ellis-Bextor's 2016 albumFamiliawas inspired by a visit to Mexico. She posted a video in which she appears singing one of the songs from the album, "Death of Love", next to a group of mariachis inPuerto Vallarta,Jalisco.

Women in mariachi

[edit]
Female mariachi vocalist at the Festival del Mariachi, Charrería y Tequila inSan Juan de los Lagos,Mexico

In the 1940s, the first all-female mariachi band created itself, directed by Carlota Noriega, with many more to follow in their path, primarily from the United States.[1]These women-led mariachis or musicians faced misogyny for taking on a style of music that was considered to be male-dominated space coming from the machismo ideology.[1]To embrace their own machismo form, these female groups would use their femininity and beauty to find success, singing songs about independence, life, heart, and the suffrage movement.[1][43]These female groups adopted the same traje de charro attire that the men but added long skirts and removed the sombreros.

In 1976, the first United States founded all-women mariachi group was Las Generalas. They made sure to keep their image clean by not drinking or playing late at night in order to make the American public respect mariachi.[44]

Dance

[edit]

The most common dance technique in mariachi iszapateado,translated to "tap dance" is a kind of footwork adopted from the SpanishFlamencodance. It is a percussive rhythmic dance that follows a plant of foot followed by a heel tap then another foot plant, and continues on this pattern.[45]

Ballet folklórico is a dance that is not directly linked to mariachi, but they are often performed on stage together. They both involve highly gendered performances, elaborate costumes, and invite audience participation.[46]

Musical forms

[edit]
Mariachi Guadalajara
A mariachi fiddler
Mariachi, Heart of Mexico
  • Show mariachi allows the groups to play a certain set list of songs.
  • Nochistlán (sequential participatory music) allows an interactive music listening experience where audience members can request songs and even participate with karaoke.[47]
  • Meter in2
    4    [chun-ta]
  • Canción ranchera (a dos tiempos)
  • Corrido (a dos tiempos)
  • "Polka"
  • Pasodoble
  • Marcha
  • Meter in3
    4    [chun-ta-ta]
  • Canción ranchera (tres tiempos)
  • Corrido (tres tiempos)
  • Valsesmexicanos
  • Meter in4
    4
  • Meter in6
    8
  • Meter2
    4    with6
    8
  • Mixed meter
Examples:
  • "Muerte de un gallero" (corrido-son)
  • "El Charro Mexicano" (ranchera-son)

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcdMulholland, Mary-Lee (2013)."A Beautiful Thing: Mariachi and Femininity in Jalisco, Mexico".Anthropologica.55(2): 359–372.ISSN0003-5459.
  2. ^ab"Mariachi, Patrimonio de la Humanidad: UNESCO"[Mariachi, World Heritage Site: UNESCO].Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia(in Spanish). Mexico:INAH.November 27, 2011. Archived from the original on April 26, 2021.RetrievedApril 26,2021.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  3. ^abcdefghijk"History of the Mariachi Puro Mariachi Foundation".Puro Mariachi.RetrievedJune 20,2012.
  4. ^abcdef"What is Mariachi Music?".New Mexico State University.RetrievedJune 20,2012.
  5. ^abcdefghijCamille Collins (March 9, 2007)."What is the mariachi?".Mexconnect newsletter.ISSN1028-9089.RetrievedJune 20,2012.
  6. ^Nolasco, Antonio, Perla de los Ángeles (2018). "1.2. Sobre la etimología de mariachi".Estudio lexicológico del vocabulario del mariachi de Puebla(Tesis de Licenciatura thesis). Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.Retrieved2024-01-15.{{cite thesis}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^Clark, Sylvia (2005).""Mariachi music as a symbol of Mexican culture in the United States"".International Journal of Music Education.23(3): 227–237.doi:10.1177/0255761405058237.S2CID145578649.Archived fromthe originalon 2015-06-26.Retrieved2016-11-29– via SAGE.
  8. ^abcdSheehy, Daniel. 2006. Mariachi Music in America: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
  9. ^Greathouse, Patricia. Mariachi. Layton: Gibbs Smith. 2009. p. 35.
  10. ^abcdCecilia Martinez-Avila (November 1997). "Marvelous Mariachi: A new generation embraces centuries-old music of Mexico".Hispanic.Denver: 28.
  11. ^abJáuregui, Jesús. 2007. El Mariachi: Símbolo Musical de México. México D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
  12. ^Mulholland, Mary-Lee (2021-07-01)."Jalisco Is Mexico: Race and Class in the Encuentro Internacional del Mariachi y la Charrería in Guadalajara, Mexico (1994–2003)".Journal of American Folklore.134(533): 292–318.doi:10.5406/jamerfolk.134.533.0292.ISSN0021-8715.
  13. ^Chavez, Humberto Dominguez."Programa de Cómputo para la Enseñanza: Cultura y Vida Cotidiana: 1900-1920, Historia de México II Primera Unidad: Crisis del Porfiriato y México Revolucionario 1900-1920, La música y el teatro popular de 1900 a 1920".Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.RetrievedSeptember 9,2015.
  14. ^Castillo, Manuel M. (2014).Italian and Spanish Influence on Selected Works of Mexican Composers: María Grever, Ignacio Fernández Esperón "Tata Nacho," and Augustín Lara(DMA dissertation). The University of Kentucky. p. 20.RetrievedSeptember 8,2015.
  15. ^Cavazos, Gregorio A. (May 1, 2023)."The Development Mariachi Trumpet within the Son Jalisciense, Using the Musical Selection 'El Cihualteco' – a Case Study".Texas Tech University Libraries:5 – via Google scholar.
  16. ^ab[Méndez Rodríguez], Hermes Rafael. 1983. Los Primeros Mariachis en la Ciudad de México. Guía Para el Investigador. México D.F.: S.E. Pesadilla de Fondo.
  17. ^abChris Hawley (July 16, 2010)."Mexico protects its mariachi plaza".New York.RetrievedJune 20,2012.
  18. ^Henriques, Donald A. 2006. "Performing Nationalism: Mariachi, Media and the Transformation of a Tradition (1920-1942)." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
  19. ^abcdDonald Andrew Henriques (2006).Performing nationalism: Mariachi, media and transformation of a tradition (1920--1942)(PhD). The University of Texas at Austin.OCLC3294414.
  20. ^ab"Mariachi: The Spirit of Mexico WLIW New York".WLIW.New York. May 4, 2012. Archived fromthe originalon July 29, 2012.RetrievedJune 20,2012.
  21. ^abcdeGuy Keeler (March 23, 2006). "Girls get the beat: Mariachi's male image doesn't faze young women".McClatchy - Tribune Business News.Washington. p. 1.
  22. ^Rodriguez, Russell C. (2023). "Mariachi Accompaniment: Cultural Bearers for Communal Conviviality".Twentieth-Century Music:4.
  23. ^Martha Sarabia (May 10, 2008). "Mariachi de a millón" [Mariachi of a million].La Opinión(in Spanish). Los Angeles.
  24. ^"The world's best mariachis - El Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán".La Voz Bilingüe.Denver. October 1, 2003. p. 8B.
  25. ^Clark, Jonathan. 1994. "Introduction." Cuarteto Coculense: The Very First Recordings 1908-1909 (Sones Abajeños), produced by Chris Strachwitz. El Cerrito: Arhoolie Records, CD7036.
  26. ^"LA Holiday Celebration: Mariachi Divas de Cindy Shea".LA County Arts Commission. 2010.RetrievedJune 27,2014.
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