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Marine biology

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For the scientific journal, seeMarine Biology (journal).
"Marine biologist" redirects here. For the Seinfeld episode, seeThe Marine Biologist.
Marine biology studies species (marine life) that live inmarine habitats(coastalandopen oceanhabitats). Clockwise from top left:Tide poolinSanta Cruz,United States; School ofbarracudaatPom Pom Island,Malaysia;Fan musselin aMediterraneanseagrass meadow;Researchsubmarinefor marine research.
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Marine biologyis the scientific study of the biology ofmarine life,organisms that inhabit thesea.Given that inbiologymanyphyla,familiesandgenerahave some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on theenvironmentrather than ontaxonomy.

A large proportion of alllife on Earthlives in the ocean. The exact size of this "large proportion" is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world,[1]covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped insurface tensionbetween the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of theoceanic trenches,sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats includeestuaries,coral reefs,kelp forests,seagrass meadows,the surrounds ofseamountsandthermal vents,tidepools,muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopicphytoplanktonandzooplanktonto hugecetaceans(whales) 25–32 meters (82–105 feet) in length.Marine ecologyis the study of how marine organisms interact with each other and the environment.

Marine life is a vast resource, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in addition to helping to supportrecreationandtourismall over the world. At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to theoxygen cycle,and are involved in the regulation of the Earth'sclimate.[2]Shorelinesare in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.[3]

Many species are economically important to humans, including both finfish and shellfish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as thecarbon cycle) and of air (such asEarth's respiration,and movement of energy throughecosystemsincluding the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.

Biological oceanography

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Main article:Biological oceanography
Two views of the ocean from space
Marine biology studies species that live inmarine habitats.Most of the Earth's surface is covered byocean,which is the home tomarine life.Oceans average nearly four kilometers in-depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for about360,000 kilometres.[4][5]

Marine biology can be contrasted withbiological oceanography.Marine lifeis a field of study both in marine biology and in biologicaloceanography.Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by thephysics,chemistry,andgeologyof theoceanographic system.Biological oceanography mostly focuses on themicroorganismswithin the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem.[6]Biological oceanography is similar to marine biology, but it studies ocean life from a different perspective. Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach in terms of the food web, while marine biology studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on the ecosystem of the ocean with an emphasis onplankton:their diversity (morphology, nutritional sources, motility, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon cycle; and their distribution (predation and life cycle).[6][7][8]Biological oceanography also investigates the role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact theecosystemsin the oceans.[6][9]

Marine habitats

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Marine habitats
Coral reefsprovide marine habitats for tube sponges, which in turn become marine habitats for fish
Coastal habitats
Ocean surface
Open ocean
Sea floor
Main article:Marine habitats

Marine habitats can be divided intocoastalandopen oceanhabitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from theshorelineto the edge of thecontinental shelf.Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided intopelagicanddemersalhabitats. Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the openwater column,away from the bottom of the ocean and affected byocean currents,while demersal habitats are near or on the bottom. Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp and sea grasses, areecosystem engineerswhich reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms.

Intertidal and near shore

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Tide pools with sea stars andsea anemone

Intertidal zones,the areas that are close to the shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean'stides.A huge array of life can be found within this zone. Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the process ofbioerosion.

Estuaries

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Estuaries have shifting flows of sea water and fresh water.

Estuariesare also near shore and influenced by thetides.An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open sea.[10]Estuaries form a transition zone between freshwater river environments and saltwater maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The shifting flows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.[11]

Reefs

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Coral reefsform complex marine ecosystems with tremendousbiodiversity.
Main article:Coral reef

Reefscomprise some of the densest and most diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs aretropicalcoral reefswhich exist in most tropical waters; however, reefs can also exist in cold water. Reefs are built up bycoralsand othercalcium-depositing animals, usually on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to createartificial reefs.Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbioticzooxanthellae,tropical fish and many other organisms.

Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and theEl Niñoweather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the most severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died becausesea surface temperaturesrose well above normal.[12][13]Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict thatglobal warmingcould exacerbate this trend.[14][15][16][17]

Some representative ocean animal life (not drawn to scale) within their approximate depth-defined ecological habitats.Marine microorganismsexist on the surfaces and within the tissues and organs of the diverse life inhabiting the ocean, across all ocean habitats.[18]

Open ocean

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The open ocean is the area of deep sea beyond thecontinental shelves.
Main article:Pelagic zone

The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. The open ocean is separated into different zones, and the different zones each have different ecologies.[19]Zones which vary according to their depth include theepipelagic,mesopelagic,bathypelagic,abyssopelagic,andhadopelagiczones. Zones which vary by the amount of light they receive include thephoticandaphotic zones.Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form ofdetritus.

Deep sea and trenches

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A deep-seachimaera.Its snout is covered withtiny porescapable of detecting animals by perturbations in electric fields.

The deepest recordedoceanic trenchmeasured to date is theMariana Trench,near thePhilippines,in thePacific Oceanat 10,924 m (35,840 ft). At such depths,water pressureis extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A whiteflatfish,a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of thebathyscapheTriestewhen it dove to the bottom in 1960.[20]In general, the deep sea is considered to start at theaphotic zone,the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water.[21]Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light known asbio-luminescence.Marine life also flourishes aroundseamountsthat rise from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed.Hydrothermal ventsalong themid-ocean ridgespreading centers act asoases,as do their opposites,cold seeps.Such places support uniquebiomesand many newmicrobesand other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations.There is still much more to learn about the deeper parts of theocean.[22]

Marine life

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Main article:Marine life
Part of a series of overviews on
Marine life
Copepod
Crown-of-thorns starfish
Mature salmon with fungal disease
Green turtle
Albatrosshovering over the ocean looking for prey
Sea otters

In biology, many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land. Marine biology classifies species based on their environment rather than their taxonomy. For this reason, marine biology encompasses not only organisms that live only in a marine environment, but also other organisms whose lives revolve around the sea.

Microscopic life

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Main article:Marine microorganism

As inhabitants of the largest environment on Earth, microbial marine systems drive changes in every global system. Microbes are responsible for virtually allphotosynthesisthat occurs in the ocean, as well as the cycling ofcarbon,nitrogen,phosphorusand othernutrientsand trace elements.[23]

Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role ofvirusesin marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.[24]

The role ofphytoplanktonis better understood due to their critical position as the most numerousprimary producerson Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized intocyanobacteria(also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types ofalgae(red, green, brown, and yellow-green),diatoms,dinoflagellates,euglenoids,coccolithophorids,cryptomonads,chrysophytes,chlorophytes,prasinophytes,andsilicoflagellates.

Zooplanktontend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. ManyProtozoaare zooplankton, including dinoflagellates,zooflagellates,foraminiferans,andradiolarians.Some of these (such as dinoflagellates) are also phytoplankton; the distinction between plants and animals often breaks down in very small organisms. Other zooplankton includecnidarians,ctenophores,chaetognaths,molluscs,arthropods,urochordates,andannelidssuch aspolychaetes.Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they become large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples arefish larvaeand sea stars (also calledstarfish).

Plants and algae

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Main article:Marine algae and plants

Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding places for larval forms of larger fish and foraging places for invertebrates.

Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of thenicheoccupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopicalgaein the ocean, such asSargassumandkelp,which are commonly known asseaweedsthat createkelp forests.

Plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as theseagrasses(examples of which are eelgrass,Zostera,and turtle grass,Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. Theintertidal zoneis also a good place to find plant life in the sea, wheremangrovesorcordgrassorbeach grassmight grow.

Invertebrates

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Main article:Marine invertebrates

As on land,invertebrates,or animals that lack a backbone, make up a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate sea life includesCnidariasuch asjellyfishandsea anemones;Ctenophora;sea wormsincluding thephylaPlatyhelminthes,Nemertea,Annelida,Sipuncula,Echiura,Chaetognatha,andPhoronida;Molluscaincludingshellfish,squid,octopus;ArthropodaincludingChelicerataandCrustacea;Porifera;Bryozoa;Echinodermataincludingstarfish;andUrochordataincludingsea squirtsortunicates.

Fungi

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Main article:Marine fungi

Over 10,000[25]species offungiare known from marine environments.[26]These are parasitic onmarine algaeor animals, or aresaprobeson algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and other substrata, and can also be found insea foam.[27]Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment to the substratum.[28]A very diverse range of unusual secondarymetabolitesis produced by marine fungi.[29]

Vertebrates

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Main article:Marine vertebrates

Fish

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Main article:Fish

A reported33,400 species of fish,includingbonyandcartilaginous fish,had been described by 2016,[30]more than all other vertebrates combined. About 60% of fish species live in saltwater.[31]

Reptiles

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Main article:Marine reptile

Reptileswhich inhabit or frequent the sea includesea turtles,sea snakes,terrapins,themarine iguana,and thesaltwater crocodile.Mostextantmarine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, areoviparousand need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excluding sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.[32][33]Someextinctmarine reptiles, such asichthyosaurs,evolved to beviviparousand had no requirement to return to land.

Birds

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Main article:Seabird

Birds adapted to living in themarine environmentare often calledseabirds.Examples includealbatross,penguins,gannets,andauks.Although they spend most of their lives in the ocean, species such asgullscan often be found thousands of miles inland.

Mammals

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Main article:Marine mammal

There are five main types of marine mammals:cetaceans(toothed whalesandbaleen whales);sirenianssuch asmanatees;pinnipedsincluding seals and thewalrus;sea otters;and the polar bear.All are air-breathing, meaning that while some such as thesperm whalecan dive for prolonged periods, all must return to the surface to breathe.[34][35]

Subfields

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Themarine ecosystemis large, and thus there are many sub-fields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular animal groups, such asphycology,invertebrate zoologyandichthyology.Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion insea waterand the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such ascarbon dioxidedisplacement). Recent marinebiotechnologyhas focused largely on marinebiomolecules,especiallyproteins,that may have uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspirebiomimetic materials.

Through constant monitoring of the ocean, there have been discoveries of marine life which could be used to create remedies for certain diseases such as cancer and leukemia. In addition, Ziconotide, an approved drug used to treat pain, was created from a snail which resides in the ocean.[36]

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Marine biology is a branch ofbiology.It is closely linked tooceanography,especiallybiological oceanography,and may be regarded as a sub-field ofmarine science.It also encompasses many ideas fromecology.Fisheries scienceandmarine conservationcan be considered partial offshoots of marine biology (as well asenvironmental studies).Marine chemistry,physical oceanographyandatmospheric sciencesare also closely related to this field.

Distribution factors

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An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map thelife cyclesof various species and where they spend their time. Technologies that aid in this discovery includepop-up satellite archival tags,acoustic tags,and a variety of otherdata loggers.Marine biologists study how theocean currents,tidesand many other oceanic factors affect ocean life forms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently become technically feasible with advances inGPSand newer underwater visual devices.[37]

Most ocean life breeds in specific places, nests in others, spends time as juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know little about where many species spend different parts of their life cycles especially in the infant and juvenile years. For example, it is still largely unknown where juvenilesea turtlesand somesharksin the first year of their life travel. Recent advances in underwater tracking devices are illuminating what we know about marine organisms that live at great ocean depths.[38]The information thatpop-up satellite archival tagsgives aids in fishing closures for certain times of the year and the development ofmarine protected areas.This data is important to both scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that, by restricting commercial fishing in one small area, they can have a large impact in maintaining a healthy fish population in a much larger area.

History

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Main article:History of marine biology
Aristotlerecorded that theembryoofa dogfishwas attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (theyolk sac).[39]

The study of marine biology dates toAristotle(384–322 BC), who mademany observations of life in the seaaroundLesbos,laying the foundation for many future discoveries.[40]In 1768,Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin(1744–1774) published theHistoria Fucorum,the first work dedicated to marinealgaeand the first book on marine biology to use the newbinomial nomenclatureofLinnaeus.It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.[41][42]The British naturalistEdward Forbes(1815–1854) is generally regarded as the founder of the science of marine biology.[43]The pace of oceanographic and marine biology studies quickly accelerated during the course of the 19th century.

HMSChallengerduring itspioneer expeditionof 1872–1876

The observations made in the first studies of marine biology fueled theAge of Discoveryand exploration that followed. During this time, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the world. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages ofHMSBeaglewhereCharles Darwincame up with his theories ofevolutionand on the formation ofcoral reefs.[44]Another important expedition was undertaken byHMSChallenger,where findings were made of unexpectedly highspecies diversityamongfaunastimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment.[45]This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were still limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would allow them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.

The creation of marine laboratories was important because it allowed marine biologists to conduct research and process their specimens from expeditions. The oldest marine laboratory in the world,Station biologique de Roscoff,was established in Concarneau, France founded by the College of France in 1859.[46]In the United States, theScripps Institution of Oceanographydates back to 1903, while the prominentWoods Hole Oceanographic Institutewas founded in 1930.[47]The development of technology such assound navigation and ranging,scuba divinggear,submersiblesandremotely operated vehiclesallowed marine biologists to discover and explore life in deep oceans that was once thought to not exist.[48]Public interest in the subject continued to develop in the post-war years with the publication ofRachel Carson's sea trilogy (1941-1955).

Further information:Sonic characteristics of marine species

See also

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Lists

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References

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  6. ^abcLalli, Carol M., and Timothy R. Parsons. "Introduction." Biological Oceanography: An Introduction. First Edition ed. Tarrytown, New York: Pergamon, 1993. 7-21. Print.
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Further references

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