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A male masturbating
A female masturbating

Masturbationis a form ofautoeroticismin which a personsexually stimulatestheir owngenitalsforsexual arousalor other sexual pleasure, usually to the point oforgasm.[1][2][3]The stimulation may involve the use ofhands,everyday objects,sex toys,or more rarely, themouth(autofellatioandautocunnilingus).[1][2]Masturbation may also be performed with asex partner,either masturbating together or watching the other partner masturbate.[4][5][6]

Masturbation is frequent in both sexes. Various medical and psychological benefits have been attributed to a healthy attitude toward sexual activity in general and to masturbation in particular. Nocausalrelationship is known between masturbation and any form of mental or physical disorder.[7][8]Masturbation is considered by clinicians to be a healthy, normal part ofsexual enjoyment.Religions vary in theirviewsof masturbation.

It has been depicted in art since prehistoric times, and is both mentioned and discussed in very early writings. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some European theologians and physicians described it in negative terms, but during the 20th century, thesetaboosgenerally declined. There has been an increase in discussion and portrayal of masturbation in art, popular music, television, films, and literature. The legal status of masturbation has also varied through history and masturbation in public is illegal in most countries.[9]Masturbation in non-human animalshas been observed both in the wild and captivity.[10][11][12]

Etymology

The English wordmasturbationwas introduced in the 18th century, based on the Latin verbmasturbari,alongside the slightly earlieronanism. TheLatinverbmasturbariis ofuncertain origin.Suggested derivations include an unattested word forpenis,*mazdo,cognate withGreekμέζεαmézea'genitals', or alternatively a corruption of an unattested*manu stuprare( "to defile with the hand" ), by association withturbare'to disturb'.[13][14]

Terminology

Whilemasturbationis the formal word for this practice, many other expressions are in common use. Terms such asplaying with yourself,pleasuring oneselfand slang such aswanking,[15]jerking off,jacking off,fapping[16]andfriggingare common.Self-abuseandself-pollutionwere common in early modern times and are still found in modern dictionaries. A large variety of othereuphemismsanddysphemismsexist which describe masturbation. For a list of terms, see the entry formasturbateinWiktionary.

Techniques

General

Two vibrators in asex shop

Masturbation involves touching, pressing, rubbing, or massaging one's owngenitalarea with the hands, fingers, or against an object such as apillow;inserting fingers or an object into thevaginaoranus(seeanal masturbation); and stimulating the penis or vulva with an electricvibrator,which may also be inserted into the vagina or anus. It may also involve touching, rubbing, or pinching thenipplesor othererogenous zoneswhile masturbating. Both sexes sometimes applylubricantsto reduce friction.[17]

Reading or viewingpornography,sexual fantasies,or other erotic stimuli may lead to a desire for sexual release such as by masturbation. Pornography is also used to assist with masturbation and to improve the experience of masturbating.[18]Some people getsexual pleasureby inserting objects, such asurethral sounds,into theurethra(the tube through which urine and, in men, semen, flows),[19]a practice known asurethral playor "sounding".[20]Other objects such as ball point pens and thermometers are sometimes used, although this practice can lead to injury or infection.[21]Some people usesex machinesto simulate intercourse.[22]

Men and women may masturbate until they are close to orgasm, stop for a while to reduce excitement, and then resume masturbating. They may repeat this cycle multiple times. This "stop and go" build-up, known as "edging",can achieve even stronger orgasms.[23]Rarely, people quit stimulation just before orgasm to retain the heightened energy that normally comes down after orgasm.[24]

Female masturbation

Manual stimulation (fingering)

See also:Fingering (sexual act)
A female masturbating by manually stimulating her own vulva (fingering) –Gustav Klimt'sWoman seated with thighs apart(1916)

Manual stimulation for masturbation among females involves the stroking or rubbing of thevulva,especially theclitoris,with anindexormiddle finger,or both. Sometimes one or more fingers may be inserted into the vagina to stroke its frontal wall where theG-spotmay be located.[25]

Other methods

Masturbation aids such as a vibrator,dildo,orBen Wa ballscan also be used to stimulate the vagina and clitoris. Many women caress their breasts or stimulate a nipple with the free hand and anal stimulation is also enjoyed by some. Personal lubricant is sometimes used during masturbation, especially whenpenetrationis involved, but this is not universal and many women find theirnatural lubricationsufficient.

Common positions for female masturbation include lying on one's back or face down, sitting,squatting,kneeling,or standing. In a bath or shower, a female may direct water via a handheld showerhead at her clitoris, vulva, or perineum. Lying face down one may use their hands, one may straddle a pillow, the corner or edge of the bed, a partner's leg or some scrunched-up clothing and "hump"the vulva and clitoris against it. Standing up, a chair, the corner of an item of furniture, or even a washing machine can be used to stimulate the clitoris through the labia and clothing. Some masturbate only using pressure applied to the clitoris without direct contact, for example by pressing the palm or ball of the hand againstunderwearor other clothing.[citation needed]In the 1920s,Havelock Ellisreported that turn-of-the-century seamstresses using treadle-operated sewing machines could achieve orgasm by sitting near the edge of their chairs.[26]

Women can stimulate themselves sexually by crossing their legs tightly and clenching the muscles in their legs, creating pressure on the genitals. This can potentially be done in public without observers noticing. Thoughts, fantasies, and memories of previous instances of arousal and orgasm can produce sexual excitation. Some women can orgasm spontaneously by force of will alone, although this may not strictly qualify as masturbation as no physical stimulus is involved.[27][28]

Sex therapistswill sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm, for example, to help improve sexual health and relationships, to help determine what is erotically pleasing to them, and because mutual masturbation can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships and added intimacy.[29][30]

Male masturbation

Manual stimulation

One of the illustrations toDe figuris VenerisbyÉdouard-Henri Avril.It portrays a male masturbating by manually stimulating his own penis whilesexually fantasizing.

The most common masturbation technique is to hold thepeniswith a loose fist and then move the hand up and down on theglansand theshaftof the penis.[31]This type of stimulation can result inorgasmandejaculation.The hand motion and the speed of the action may vary throughout the masturbation session. Some men may use their free hand tofondletheirscrotumandtesticles,theperineum,and other body parts, or may place both hands directly on the penis. Common positions include standing, sitting, lying on one's back or lying face down,squatting,orkneeling.In some cases, to avoid friction and irritation or to enhance sexual sensation, men prefer to use apersonal lubricantorsaliva.[31]Men may also rub or massage different areas of their glans, like itsventralsurface, the left and right sides, the rounded rim, known as thecorona,and around thefrenulum.[32]Some men lie face down inprone positionand gently rub their penis against a comfortable surface, such as a mattress or pillow, a technique known as prone masturbation.[31][33]

Other methods

Prostate massageis one other technique used for sexual stimulation, often to reach orgasm. Theprostateis sometimes referred to as the "maleG-spot"or P-spot.[34]Some men can achieve orgasm through stimulation of the prostate gland, by stimulating it using a well-lubricated finger or dildo inserted through the anus into therectum.Men who report the sensation of prostate stimulation often give descriptions similar to females' accounts of G-spot stimulation.[35][36]In some men, prostate stimulation might produce more intense orgasms than penile stimulation.[35]Stimulating the prostate from outside, via pressure on theperineum,can be pleasurable as well.[37]Anal masturbation without any prostate stimulation, with fingers or otherwise, is also a technique that some men enjoy. The muscles of the anus contract during orgasm, thus the presence of an object holding thesphincteropen can strengthen the sensation of the contractions and intensify orgasm.[38]

Some men keep their hands stationary while pumping into them with pelvic thrusts to simulate the motions ofsexual intercourse.Thenipplesare erogenous zones and vigorous stimulation of them during masturbation can result in enhanced sexual arousal.[39]Others may also use vibrators and other sexual devices for sexual stimulation. The device can be used to stimulate the penis and other areas, like the scrotum, the perineum or the anus.[40]Other sexual toys for men areartificial vaginas,likefleshlightsor othersimulacrums.[41]In a bath or shower, a male may direct water via a handheldshowerheadat his frenulum, testicles, or perineum. A somewhat controversial ejaculation control technique is to put intense pressure on the perineum, about halfway between thescrotumand the anus, just before ejaculating. This can, however, redirect semen into the bladder (referred to asretrograde ejaculation).[42]

Mutual masturbation

See also:Non-penetrative sex
Gerda Wegener's1925 artwork "Les delassements d'Eros" ( "The recreations of Eros" ), which depicts sexual activity by two women
Johann Nepomuk Geiger,watercolor,1840

Mutual masturbationinvolves two or more people who either masturbate at the same time or sexually stimulate each other, usually with the hands. It can be practiced by people of anysexual orientation,and can be part of other sexual activity. It may be used asforeplay,or as an alternative to sexual penetration.[3][4]When used as an alternative to penile-vaginal penetration, the goal may be to preservevirginityor to avoid risk of pregnancy.[43][44]

Forms of mutual masturbation include:

  • Non-contact mutual masturbation – Two people masturbating in the presence of each other but not touching.
  • Contact mutual masturbation – One person touching another person to masturbate. The other person may do the same during or after.
  • Non-contact group – More than two people masturbating in the presence of each other in a group but not touching each other.
  • Contact group – More than two people physically touching each other to masturbate as a group.
  • Mutual masturbation foreplay – The manual stimulation of each other's genitals where the session eventually leads to sexual intercourse.[45]
  • Remote mutual masturbation – Some mutual masturbation occurs between individuals in different locations, facilitated by internet enabled devices, sometimes referred to asteledildonics.

Frequency, age, and sex

Frequency of masturbation is determined by many factors, e.g., one's resistance tosexual tension,hormonelevels influencingsexual arousal,sexual habits, peer influences, health and one's attitude to masturbation formed by culture; E. Heiby and J. Becker examined the latter.[46]Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation, wherein masturbation is not cause, but effect,[47][48][49]with the exception of inserting foreign objects into the urinary bladder.[50]

Different studies have found that masturbation is frequent in humans.Alfred Kinsey's 1950s studies on the US population have shown that 92% of men and 62% of women have masturbated during their lifespan.[28]Similar results have been found in a 2007 British national probability survey. It was found that, among individuals aged 16 to 44, 95% of men and 71% of women masturbated at some point in their lives. 73% of men and 37% of women reported masturbating in the four weeks before their interview, while 53% of men and 18% of women reported masturbating in the previous seven days.[51]

The Merck Manual says that 97% of men and 80% of women have masturbated and that, generally speaking, males masturbate more than females.[52][53]It states that almost half of the population reported to have masturbated in the past four weeks.[54]

Masturbation is considered normal when performed by children,[55][8][56]even in early infancy.[47][57][58]In 2009, theSheffield NHS Health Trustissued a pamphlet called "Pleasure" which discussed the health benefits of masturbation. This was done in response to data and experience from the other EU member states to reduce teen pregnancy andSTIs (STDs),and to promote healthy habits.[59]

According to theNew Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry(1st ed.), "Masturbation and sexual play are common well before puberty. Sexual behaviour in young children is common, and should only be regarded as a sign of sexual abuse when it is out of context and is inappropriate."[60]

In the bookHuman Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America,by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, "A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis". "Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience orgasm."[61]Italian gynecologists Giorgio Giorgi and Marco Siccardi observed viaultrasounda female fetus possibly masturbating and having what appeared to be an orgasm.[62]

Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to this belief, several studies actually reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse. A study has reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship.[51][63][64][65]

Coon and Mitterer stated: "Approximately 70 percent of married women and men masturbate at least occasionally."[66][67][68]

Mitterer, Coon and Martini wrote in 2015: "Do more men masturbate than women?Yes. While 89 percent of women reported that they had masturbated at some time, the figure was 95 percent for men. (Some cynics add, 'And the other 5 percent lied!') "[69]

Evolutionary utility

Female masturbation alters conditions in the vagina, cervix and uterus, in ways that can alter the chances of conception from intercourse, depending on the timing of the masturbation. A female's orgasm between one minute before and 45 minutes after insemination favors the chances of sperm reaching her egg. If, for example, she has had intercourse with more than one male, such an orgasm can increase the likelihood of a pregnancy by one of them.[70][71]Female masturbation can also provide protection against cervical infections by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix.[71]

In males, masturbation flushes out old sperm with lowmotilityfrom the male's genital tract. The next ejaculation then contains proportionally more fresh sperm, which have higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male has intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility willcompetemore effectively.[72][73][74]

Health effects

Benefits

TheAmerican Medical Associationdeclared masturbation as normal by consensus in 1972.[75]It does not deplete one's body of energy[76]or producepremature ejaculation.[77]Themedical consensusis that masturbation is a medically healthy andpsychologically normalhabit.[53][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85]According to theMerck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy,"It is considered abnormal only when it inhibits partner-oriented behavior, is done in public, or is sufficiently compulsive to cause distress."[53][86]

Solo masturbation is a sexual activity that is nearly free of risk ofsexually transmitted infection.[87]With two or more participants, the risk of sexually transmitted infection, while not eliminated, remains lower than with most forms ofpenetrative sex.Support for such a view and for making masturbation part of the American sex education curriculum led to the dismissal ofUS Surgeon GeneralJoycelyn Eldersduring theClinton administration.[88]

Masturbation among adolescents contributes to their developing a sense of mastery over sexual impulses, and it has a role in the physical and emotional development of prepubescents and pubescents.[89]

Sex therapists sometimes recommend that female patients take time to masturbate to orgasm; for example, to help improve sexual health and relationships, to help determine what is erotically pleasing to them, and because mutual masturbation can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships and added intimacy.[29][30]Encyclopedia Britannicaendorses the use of masturbation inside sex therapy.[90]Britannicaalso calls "myths" the ideas that masturbation would be unhealthy or immature behavior.[91]

Mutual masturbation enables partners in a couple to reveal the "map to [their] pleasure centers", learning how they enjoy being touched. When intercourse is inconvenient or impractical, mutual masturbation affords couples the opportunity to obtain sexual release as often as desired.[92]

It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relievedepressionand lead to a higher sense ofself-esteem.[93]When one partner in a relationship wants more sex than the other, masturbation can provide a balancing effect and promote a more harmonious relationship.[92]

In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles ofThe Cancer Council Australia[94]found that males who masturbated frequently had a lower probability of developingprostate cancer,although they could not demonstrate a direct causation. A 2008 study concluded that frequent ejaculation between the ages of 20 and 40 was correlated with higher risk of developing prostate cancer, while frequent ejaculation in the sixth decade of life was found to be correlated with a lower risk.[95]However, a larger 2016 study found that regular ejaculation markedly reduced prostate cancer risk in all age groups.[96]

A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death fromcoronary heart diseaseand frequency of orgasm, even given the risk that myocardialischaemiaandmyocardial infarctioncan be triggered by sexual activity. Its authors stated: "The association between frequency of orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recorded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjustedodds ratiofor an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95). "That is, a difference in mortality appeared between any two subjects when one subject ejaculated at around two times per week more than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between three and five ejaculations per week for healthy males, this would mean five to seven ejaculations per week. This is consistent with a 2003 paper that found the strength of these correlations increased with increasing frequency of ejaculation.[97]

A 2008 study atTabriz Medical Universityfound that ejaculation reduces swollen nasal blood vessels, freeing the airway for normal breathing. The mechanism is through stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and is long-lasting. The study author suggests: "It can be done [from] time-to-time to alleviate the congestion and the patient can adjust the number of intercourses or masturbations depending on the severity of the symptoms."[98]

Sexual climax leaves an individual in a relaxed and contented state, frequently followed by drowsiness and sleep.[99][100][101]

Some professionals consider masturbation equivalent to a cardiovascular workout.[102]Though research remains scant, those suffering from cardiovascular disorders, particularly those recovering fromheart attacks,should resume physical activity gradually and with the frequency and rigor which their physical status will allow. This limitation can serve as encouragement to follow through withphysical therapysessions to help improve endurance. In general, sex slightly increases energy consumption.[103][104]

Risks

Masturbation is generally safe,[105]and complications are rare. When issues do occur, they are generally due to methodology[106][107][108]or underlying psychiatric illness.[109][110]

Those who insert objects as aids to masturbation risk them becoming stuck (either due to size, technique, or anatomy; includingrectal foreign bodies[107]andurethral foreign bodies[108]), causing damage. Such risks can effect both men and women, with a multitude of case reports available, including that of a female who pierced her urethra after inserting two pencils during masturbation,[50]and the case of a male who required extensive treatment after inserting a pair of headphones into his bladder.[111]

A male whose penis is bluntly traumatized during intercourse or masturbation may, rarely, sustain apenile fracture[106][112][113]or developPeyronie's disease.[114]In these cases, any energetic manipulation of the penis can cause discomfort or further damage.

A small percentage of males experiencepostorgasmic illness syndrome(POIS), which can cause severe muscle pain throughout the body and other symptoms immediately following ejaculation, whether due to masturbation or partnered sex. The symptoms last for up to a week.[115][116][117]Some doctors speculate that the frequency of POIS "in the population may be greater than has been reported in the academic literature",[118]and that many cases are undiagnosed.[119]

Compulsive masturbation and other compulsive behaviors can be signs of an emotional problem, which may need to be addressed by a mental health specialist.[110]As with any "nervous habit", it is more helpful to consider the causes of compulsive behavior, rather than try to repress masturbation.[120]

Alongside many other factors—such as medical evidence, age-inappropriate sexual knowledge, sexualized play and precocious or seductive behavior—excessive masturbation may be an indicator ofsexual abuse.[121][122]

According toDSM-5-TR,"Delayed ejaculation is associated with highly frequent masturbation, use of masturbation techniques not easily duplicated by a partner, and marked disparities between sexual fantasies during masturbation and the reality of sex with a partner."[109]

Cultural history

Main article:History of masturbation

Ancient world

Detail of akrater,dating toc.560–550 BC, showing asatyrmasturbating, a common scene in many ancient Greek pottery paintings[123][124]

Thesexualstimulation of one's owngenitalshas beeninterpreted variously by different religions,the subject of legislation, social controversy, activism, as well as intellectual study insexology.Social views regarding masturbation taboo have varied greatly in different cultures, and over history.

There are depictions of male and female masturbation in prehistoricrock paintingsaround the world. From the earliest records, the ancientSumerianshad very relaxed attitudes toward sex.[125]The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women,[125]and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners.[125]Men would often usepuru-oil, a special oil probably mixed with pulverizediron oreintended to enhance friction.[125]Masturbation was also an act of creation and, inSumerian mythology,the godEnkiwas believed to have created theTigrisandEuphratesrivers by masturbating and ejaculating into their emptyriverbeds.[126]Theancient Egyptiansalso regarded masturbation by a deity as an act of creation; the godAtumwas believed to have created the universe by masturbating to ejaculation.[127]

Theancient Greeksalso regarded masturbation as a normal and healthy substitute for other forms of sexual pleasure.[128]Most information about masturbation in ancient Greece comes from surviving works ofancient Greek comedyandpottery.[123]Masturbation is frequently referenced in the surviving comedies ofAristophanes,which are the most important sources of information on ancient Greek views on the subject.[123]In ancient Greek pottery,satyrsare often depicted masturbating.[123][124]According to theLives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophersby the third-century AD biographerDiogenes Laërtius,Diogenes of Sinope,the fourth-century BCCynicphilosopher, often masturbated in public, which was considered scandalous.[129][130][131]When people confronted him over this, he would say, "If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly."[129][130][131]

Among non-western perspectives on the matter, some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a loweredenergylevel of theyangin men, but causes no harm to women withyin,even going further to introduce masturbating tools for women in books.[132]Within theAfrican Congo Basin,theAka,Ngandu,Lesi,Brbs,andIturiethnic groupsall lack a word for masturbation in their languages and are confused by the concept of masturbation.[133]

Development of the contemporary Western world view

Masturbation was depicted in 19th-centuryshungaprints, such as this piece byKunisada.
Self-portraitofEgon Schielein 1911, depicting masturbation

18th century

Onanismis a hybrid term which combines the proper noun,Onan,with the suffix,-ism.[134]Notions of self-pollution, impurity and uncleanness were increasingly associated with various other sexual vices and crimes of the body (such as fornication, sodomy, adultery, incest and obscene language); in reaction to the 17th-century libertine culture, middle-class moralists increasingly campaigned for a reformation of manners and a stricter regulation of the body. Paradoxically, a crime that was secret and private became a popular and fashionable topic. Moreover, writers tended to focus more on the perceived links with mental and physical illnesses that were deemed to be associated with the sense of moral outrage. Attention increasingly shifted to the prevention and cure of this illness which perilously sapped men of their virility.[135]

The first use of the word "onanism" to consistently and specifically refer to masturbation is a pamphlet first distributed in London in 1716, titled "Onania, or the Heinous Sin of self-Pollution,And All Its Frightful Consequences, In Both Sexes, Considered: With Spiritual and Physical Advice To Those Who Have Already Injured Themselves By This Abominable Practice. "The Online Etymology Dictionary, however, claims the earliest known use ofonanismoccurred in 1727. In 1743–1745, the British physicianRobert JamespublishedA Medicinal Dictionary,in which he described masturbation as being "productive of the most deplorable and generally incurable disorders" and stated that "there is perhaps no sin productive of so many hideous consequences".[136]One of the many horrified by the descriptions of malady inOnaniawas the notable Swiss physicianSamuel-Auguste Tissot.In 1760, he publishedL'Onanisme,his own comprehensive medical treatise on the purported ill-effects of masturbation. Though Tissot's ideas are now consideredconjecturalat best, his treatise was presented as a scholarly, scientific work in a time when experimental physiology was practically nonexistent.[citation needed]

Immanuel Kantregarded masturbation as a violation of the moral law. InThe Metaphysics of Morals(1797), he made thea posterioriargument that "such an unnatural use of one's sexual attribute" strikes "everyone upon his thinking of it" as "a violation of one's duty to himself", and suggested that it was regarded as immoral even to give it its proper name (unlike the case of the similarly undutiful act of suicide). He went on, however, to acknowledge that "it is not so easy to produce a rational demonstration of the inadmissibility of that unnatural use", but ultimately concluded that its immorality lay in the fact that "a man gives up his personality… when he uses himself merely as a means for the gratification of an animal drive".[137]His arguments were rejected as flawed byethicistsof the 20th and 21st centuries.[138][139]

19th century

By 1838,Jean Esquirolhad declared in hisDes Maladies Mentalesthat masturbation was "recognized in all countries as a cause of insanity".[140][141]The medical literature of the time also described more invasive procedures including electric shock treatment,infibulation,restraining devices likechastity beltsandstraitjackets,cauterizationor – as a last resort – wholesalesurgical excisionof the genitals.[citation needed]Medical attitudes toward masturbation began to change towards the end of the 19th century whenH. Havelock Ellis,in his seminal 1897 workStudies in the Psychology of Sex,questioned Tissot's premises.[142]

20th century

In 1905,Sigmund Freudaddressed masturbation in hisThree Essays on the Theory of Sexualityand associated it with addictive substances. He described the masturbation of infants at the period when the infant is nursing, at four years of age, and at puberty. At the same time, the supposed medical condition ofhysteria—from the Greekhysteraor uterus—was being treated by what would now be described as medically administered or medically prescribed masturbation for women. In 1910, the meetings of theVienna psychoanalytic circlediscussed the moral or health effects of masturbation,[143]but its publication on the matter was suppressed. "Concerning Specific Forms of Masturbation"is a 1922 essay by another Austrian, the psychiatrist and psychoanalystWilhelm Reich.In the seven and a half page essay Reich accepts the prevalent notions on the roles ofunconscious fantasyand the subsequent emergingguiltfeelings which he saw as originating from the act itself.[citation needed]

By 1930,F. W. W. Griffin,editor ofThe Scouter,had written in a book forRover Scoutsstating that the temptation to masturbate was "a quite natural stage of development" and, citingEllis' work, held that "the effort to achieve complete abstinence was a very serious error." The work of sexologistAlfred Kinseyduring the 1940s and 1950s, most notably theKinsey Reports,insisted that masturbation was an instinctive behavior for both males and females. In the US, masturbation has not been a diagnosable condition sinceDSMII (1968).[144]

Thomas Szaszstated in 1973 the shift inscientific consensus:[79][80][145]"Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century, it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure."[81]In 2019,Encyclopædia Britannicaendorses his conclusion (namely masturbation as a cure inside sex therapy).[90]

Dörner and others wrote in their now classic book (1978): "Self-satisfaction is therefore a priceless good for the success of sexual pleasure, but also for other partnership and sexual relationships: for only if I can offer something to myself can I also offer it to someone else.... Not self-satisfaction, but feelings closely correlated with it need among others help through counseling, respectively therapy!"[146]

In the 1980s,Michel Foucaultwas arguing masturbation taboo was "rape by the parents of the sexual activity of their children". However, in 1994, when thesurgeon general of the United States,Joycelyn Elders,said that it should be mentioned in schoolsex educationcurricula, as a side note, that masturbation is safe and healthy, she was forced to resign,[88]with opponents asserting that she was promoting the teaching ofhowto masturbate.[citation needed]

21st century

Both practices and cultural views of masturbation have continued to evolve in the 21st century, partly because the contemporarylifeworldis increasingly technical.[according to whom?]For example, digital photographs or live video may be used to share masturbatory experiences either in a broadcast format (possibly in exchange of money, as with performances bywebcam models), or between members of along-distance relationship.Teledildonicsis a growing field. Masturbation has been depicted as a complicated part of "Love in the 21st Century" in theChannel 4drama of the same name.[147]

In modern culture

Stigma

Even though manymedicalprofessionals andscientistshave found large amounts of evidence that masturbating is healthy[53][78][81][82][83][84][85][77][144]and commonly practiced by males and females, stigma on the topic still persists today. In November 2013, Matthew Burdette committedsuicideafter a fellow student secretly made a video of him masturbating in a restroom stall, and published it.[148][149][150]

In an article published by the nonprofit organizationPlanned Parenthood Federation of America,it was reported: "Proving that these ancient stigmas against masturbation are still alive and felt by women and men, researchers in 1994 found that half of the adult women and men who masturbate feel guilty about it (Laumann, et al., 1994. p.85). Another study in 2000 found that adolescent young men are still frequently afraid to admit that they masturbate (Halpern, et al., 2000, 327)."[30]

Sperm donation

Male masturbation may be used as a method to obtain semen for third party reproductive procedures such asartificial inseminationandin vitrofertilisationwhich may involve the use of either partner or donor sperm.[151][152]

At asperm bankor fertility clinic, a special room or cabin may be set aside so that semen may be produced by male masturbation for use in fertility treatments such as artificial insemination. Most semen used forsperm donation,and all semen donated through a sperm bank by sperm donors, is produced in this way. The facility at a sperm bank used for this purpose is known as a masturbatorium (US) or men's production room (UK). A bed or couch is usually provided for the man, and pornographic films or other material may be made available.[153]

Encouragement

In the UK in 2009, a leaflet was issued by theNational Health ServiceinSheffieldcarrying the slogan, "an orgasm a day keeps the doctor away". It also says: "Health promotion experts advocate five portions of fruit and veg a day and 30 minutes' physical activity three times a week. What about sex or masturbation twice a week?" This leaflet has been circulated to parents, teachers and youth workers and is meant to update sex education by telling older school students about the benefits of enjoyable sex. Its authors have said that for too long, experts have concentrated on the need for "safe sex" and committed relationships while ignoring the principal reason that many people have sex. The leaflet is entitledPleasure.Instead of promoting teenage sex, it could encourage young people to delay losing their virginity until they are certain they will enjoy the experience, said one of its authors.[59][154]

The Spanish region ofExtremaduralaunched a program in 2009 to encourage "sexual self-exploration and the discovery of self-pleasure" in people aged from 14 to 17. The €14,000 campaign includes leaflets, flyers, a "fanzine", and workshops for the young in which they receive instruction on masturbation techniques along with advice on contraception and self-respect. The initiative, whose slogan is, "Pleasure is in your own hands" has angered local right-wing politicians and challenged traditional Roman Catholic views. Officials from the neighboring region ofAndaluciahave expressed an interest in copying the program.[155]

The text bookPalliative care nursing: quality care to the end of lifestates, "Terminally ill people are likely no different from the general population regarding their masturbation habits. Palliative care practitioners should routinely ask their patients if anything interferes in their ability to masturbate and then work with the patient to correct the problem if it is identified."[156]

Thesex-positive movementargues for a supportive environment for masturbation.[citation needed]

A 2016 review paper says that safe masturbation, in moderation (not excessive), is beneficial for heart health, and decreases risk of major adversecardiovascular diseases.[157]

A 2019 research paper says that masturbation, in moderation, can improvesleepquality, especially when one or more orgasms occur during the activity.[158]

Law

The prosecution of masturbation has varied at different times, from complete illegality to virtually unlimited acceptance. In a 17th-century law code for thePuritancolony ofNew Haven, Connecticut,blasphemers,homosexualsand masturbators were eligible for thedeath penalty.[159]

Often, masturbation in the sight of others is prosecuted under a general law such aspublic indecency,though some laws make specific mention of masturbation. In the UK, masturbating in public is illegal under Section 28 of theTown Police Clauses Act 1847.The penalty may be up to 14 days in prison, depending on a range of circumstantial factors.[160]In the US, laws vary from state to state. In 2010, the Supreme Court of Alabama upheld a state law criminalizing the distribution of sex-toys.[161]In the city of Charlotte, North Carolina, masturbating in public is a class 3 misdemeanor.[160]In 2013, a male found masturbating openly on a beach in Sweden was cleared of charges of sexual assault, the court finding that his activities had not been directed towards any specific person.[162]

In many jurisdictions, masturbation by one person of another is considereddigital penetrationwhich may be illegal in some cases, such as when the other person is a minor.[citation needed]

There is debate whether masturbation should be promoted in correctional institutions. Restrictions on pornography, used to accompany masturbation, are common inAmerican correctional facilities.Connecticut Department of Correctionsofficials say that these restrictions are intended to avoid ahostile work environmentforcorrectional officers.[163]Other researchers argue allowing masturbation could help prisoners restrict their sexual urges to their imaginations rather than engaging inprison rapeor other non-masturbatory sexual activity that could pose sexually transmitted infection or other health risks.[164]

Religious views

Main article:Religious views on masturbation
See also:Religion and sexuality,Judaism and masturbation,Islam and masturbation,andMormonism and masturbation
AtemplereliefatKhajurahoinMadhya Pradesh,Indiafeatures a couple in a sexual embrace with a male and a female masturbating to either side.

Religions vary broadly in their views of masturbation, from considering it completely impermissible (for example inCatholicism,most forms ofIslam,and some sects ofJudaism)[165]to encouraging and refining it (as, for example, in someNeotantraandTaoist sexual practices).

Popular culture

Masturbation,1911, copper engraving byMihály Zichy

Music

In popular music, there are various songs that deal with masturbation. Some of the earliest examples are "My Ding-a-Ling"byChuck Berryand "Mary Ann with the Shaky Hand" and "Pictures of Lily"byThe Who.[166]

More recent popular songs include "Love Myself"byHailee Steinfeld,"Rosie"byJackson Browne,"Una luna de miel en la mano"byVirus,"I Touch Myself"by theDivinyls,"Very Busy People" byThe Limousines,"Dancing with Myself"byBilly Idol,"Everyday I Die"byGary Numan,"You're Makin' Me High"byToni Braxton,"Holding My Own"byThe Darkness,"Nickelodeon Girls"byPink Guy,"Vibe On"byDannii Minogue,"Orgasm Addict"by theBuzzcocks,"Spank Thru"and"Paper Cuts"byNirvana,"Captain Jack"and"The Stranger"byBilly Joel,"Blister in the Sun" byViolent Femmes,"Longview"byGreen Day,"M+Ms" byBlink-182,"Wow, I Can Get Sexual Too"bySay Anything,"Touch of My Hand"byBritney Spears,"Fingers" and "U + Ur Hand"byP!nk,[167]"So Happy I Could Die"byLady Gaga,"Masturbating Jimmy" byThe Tiger Lillies,"When Life Gets Boring" byGob,"Daybed" byFKA Twigs,"Get a Grip" bySemisonic,and "Darling Nikki"byPrince.The 1983 recording "She Bop"byCyndi Lauperwas one of the first fifteen songs ever required to carry aParental Advisorysticker for sexual content.[168]In a 1993 interview onThe Howard Stern Show,Lauper claimed she recorded the vocal track in the nude.[169]The song "Masturbates" by rock groupMindless Self Indulgencealso deals with the concept of auto-erotic activity in apunkframework.

Literature

The 1858 schoolboys' novelEric, or, Little by Littlewas a tract against masturbation, but it did not mention the subject except extremely obliquely as "Kibroth-Hattaavah",a place mentioned in theOld Testamentwhere those that lusted after meat were buried.

In October 1972, an important censorship case was held in Australia, leading to the banning ofPhilip Roth'snovelPortnoy's Complaintin that country due to its masturbation references. The censorship led to public outcry at the time.[170]

Further portrayals and references to masturbation have occurred throughout literature, and the practice itself has even contributed to the production of literature among certain writers, such asWolfe,Balzac,FlaubertandJohn Cheever.[171] Perhaps the most famous fictional depiction of masturbation occurs in the "Nausicaa" episode ofUlyssesby James Joyce. Here, the novel's protagonist Bloom brings himself to covert climax during a public fireworks display after being aroused by a young female's exhibitionism.

Television

In theSeinfeldepisode "The Contest",[172]the show's main characters enter into a contest to see who can go the longest without masturbating. BecauseSeinfeld's network,NBC,did not think masturbation was a suitable topic for prime-time television, the word is never used. Instead, the subject is described using a series of euphemisms. "Master of my domain" became a part of the American lexicon from this episode.

Another NBC show,Late Night with Conan O'Brien,had a character known as the Masturbating Bear, a costume of a bear with a diaper covering its genitals. The Masturbating Bear would touch his diaper to simulate masturbation. Prior to leavingLate Nightto become host ofThe Tonight Show,Conan O'Brienoriginally retired the character due to concerns about its appropriateness in an earlier time slot.[173]The Masturbating Bear, however, made hisTonight Showdebut during the final days of Conan O'Brien's tenure as host of theTonight Show.It was clear by then that Conan O'Brien was being removed from the show and he spent his last shows pushing the envelope with skits that typically would not be appropriate for theTonight Show,one of which was the Masturbating Bear.[174]After much debate on whether or not he would be able to be used on Conan O'Brien's newTBSshow,Conan,the Masturbating Bear made an appearance on the first episode.[175]

In March 2007, the UK broadcasterChannel 4was to air a season oftelevisionprograms about masturbation, calledWank Week.(Wankis aBriticismformasturbate.) The series came under public attack from senior television figures and was pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and controversy over the channel'spublic service broadcastingcredentials.

Film

"Every Sperm Is Sacred"performed at theMonty Pythonreunion,Monty Python Live (Mostly),in July 2014

InMonty Python'sThe Meaning of Life(1983), the song "Every Sperm Is Sacred"is asatireofCatholic teachings on reproductionthat forbid masturbation (and contraception) by artificial means. InTalking Cockby comedianRichard Herring,the sketch is used to ridicule those who condemn masturbation (andsex) for any purpose other thanprocreation.[176]

InAmerican Pie(1999), Nadia (Shannon Elizabeth) discovers Jim's (Jason Biggs) pornography collection and, while sitting on his bed half-naked, masturbates to it. InAmerican Reunion(2012), Noah (Eugene Levy) attempts to explain the potential joys and difficulties of Jim explaining masturbation to his future son.[177]

Pornography

Depictions of male and female masturbation are common in pornography, includinggay pornography.Am Abend(1910), one of the earliestpornographic filmsthat have been collected at theKinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction,[178][179]starts with a female masturbation scene. Solo performances in gay pornography have been described in 1985 as "either or both active (tense, upright) and/or passive (supine, exposed, languid, available)", whereas female solo performances are said to be "exclusively passive (supine, spread, seated, squatted, orifices offered, etc.)".[180]Solo pornography recognized withAVN Awardsinclude theAll Aloneseries[181]andAll Natural: Glamour Solos.[182]

Other animals

Main article:Masturbation in animals

Masturbatory behavior has been documented in a very wide range of species. Individuals of some species have been known to create tools for masturbation purposes.[12]

See also

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  73. ^Baker, Robin R.; Bellis, Mark A. (November 1993). "Human sperm competition: Ejaculate adjustment by males and the function of masturbation".Animal Behaviour.46(5): 861, 25p.doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1271.S2CID53201940.
  74. ^Shackelford, Todd K.; Goetz, Aaron T. (February 2007)."Adaptation to Sperm Competition in Humans"(PDF).Current Directions in Psychological Science.16(1): 47–50.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00473.x.S2CID6179167.
  75. ^Planned Parenthood Federation of America(March 2003). "Masturbation: From myth to sexual health".Contemporary Sexuality.37(3): v.ISSN1094-5725.OCLC37229308.Finally, the American medical community pronounced masturbation as normal in 1972 American Medical Association publication,Human Sexuality(Rowan, 2000).
  76. ^McKinley Health Center (2 April 2008)."Masturbation: Questions and Answers"(PDF).University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 28 December 2015.Retrieved9 June2017.
  77. ^abStrassberg, Donald S.; Mackaronis, Julia E.; Perelman, Michael A. (2015)."Sexual dysfunctions".In Blaney, Paul H.; Krueger, Robert F.; Millon, Theodore (eds.).Oxford textbook of psychopathology(Third ed.). NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 441–442.ISBN978-0-19-981177-9.OCLC879552995.
  78. ^abPorter, Robert S.; Kaplan, Justin L., eds. (2011)."Chapter 165. Sexuality and Sexual Disorders".The Merck Manual of Diagnosis & Therapy(19th ed.). Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., A Subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc.ISBN978-0-911910-19-3.Archived fromthe originalon 20 February 2015.Retrieved19 June2014.
  79. ^abPatton, Michael S. (June 1985). "Masturbation from Judaism to Victorianism".Journal of Religion and Health.24(2): 133–146.doi:10.1007/BF01532257.ISSN0022-4197.PMID24306073.S2CID39066052.Social change in attitudes toward masturbation has occurred at the professional level only since 1960 and at the popular level since 1970. [133]... onanism and masturbation erroneously became synonymous... [134]... there is no legislation in the Bible pertaining to masturbation. [135]
  80. ^abBoulware, Jack (9 May 2000)."Sex educator says most people masturbate".Salon.Retrieved27 August2014.apud"Masturbation: Current medical opinions".Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.Retrieved27 August2014.
  81. ^abcSzasz, Thomas S.(1974) [1973]."Sex".The Second Sin.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p. 10.ISBN978-0-7100-7757-8.Retrieved30 June2011.Masturbation: the primary sexual activity of mankind. In the nineteenth century it was a disease; in the twentieth, it's a cure.
  82. ^abShpancer, Noah (29 September 2010)."The Masturbation Gap. The pained history of self pleasure".Psychology Today.Retrieved27 June2013.The publication of Kinsey's and Masters and Johnson's research revealed that masturbation was both common and harmless. Many studies have since confirmed this basic truth, revealing in addition that masturbation is neither a substitute for "real" sex nor a facilitator of risky sex.
  83. ^abCoon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O. (2014)."11. Gender and Sexuality".Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior(14 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 363.ISBN978-1-305-54500-7.Is there any way that masturbation can cause harm? Seventy years ago, a child might have been told that masturbation would cause insanity, acne, sterility, or other such nonsense. "Self-abuse," as it was then called, has enjoyed a long and unfortunate history of religious and medical disapproval (Caroll, 2013). The modern view is that masturbation is a normal sexual behavior (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). Enlightened parents are well aware of this fact. Still, many children are punished or made to feel guilty for touching their genitals. This is unfortunate because masturbation itself is harmless. Typically, its only negative effects are feelings of fear, guilt, or anxiety that arise from learning to think of masturbation as "bad" or "wrong." In an age when people are urged to practice "safer sex,"masturbation remains the safest sex of all.
  84. ^abSigel, Lisa Z. (Summer 2004)."Masturbation: The History of the Great Terror by Jean Stengers; Ann Van Neck; Kathryn Hoffmann".Journal of Social History.37(4): 1065–1066.doi:10.1353/jsh.2004.0065.ISSN0022-4529.JSTOR3790078.S2CID141801392.Stengers and Van Neck follow the illness to its fairly abrupt demise; they liken the shift to finally seeing the emperor without clothes as doctors began to doubt masturbation as a cause of illness at the turn of the twentieth century. Once doubt set in, scientists began to accumulate statistics about the practice, finding that a large minority and then a large majority of people masturbated. The implications were clear: if most people masturbated and did not experience insanity, debility, and early death, then masturbation could not be held accountable to the etiology that had been assigned it. Masturbation quickly lost its hold over the medical community, and parents followed in making masturbation an ordinary part of first childhood and then human sexuality.
  85. ^abWood, Kate (March 2005). "Masturbation as a Means of Achieving Sexual Health by Walter Bockting; Eli Coleman".Culture, Health & Sexuality.7(2): 182–184.ISSN1369-1058.JSTOR4005453.In the collection's introductory chapter, Eli Coleman describes how Kinsey's research half a century ago was the first in a series of studies to challenge widely prevalent cultural myths relating to the 'harmful' effects of masturbation, revealing the practice to be both common and non-pathological. Subsequent research, outlined by Coleman in this chapter, has shown masturbation to be linked to healthy sexual development, sexual well-being in relationships, self-esteem and bodily integrity (an important sexual right). As such, the promotion and de-stigmatization of the practice continue to be important strategies within sexology for the achievement of healthy sexual development and well-being.

    The collection concludes with two surveys among US college students. The first of these was based on limited quantitative questions relating to masturbation. The findings suggest that masturbation is not a substitute for sexual intercourse, as has often been posited, but is associated with increased sexual interest and greater number of partners. The second of these surveys asks whether masturbation could be useful in treating low sexual desire, by examining the relationship between masturbation, libido and sexual fantasy.
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  93. ^Wells, Ken R. (2005). "Masturbation". In Krapp, Kristine M.; Wilson, Jeffrey; Gale Group (eds.).The Gale Encyclopedia of Children's Health: Infancy Through Adolescence.Gale virtual reference library. Vol. 3. Thomson Gale. p. 1148.ISBN978-0-7876-9427-2.
  94. ^Giles, G.G.; Severi, G.; English, D.R.; McCredie, M.R.E.; Borland, R.; Boyle, P.; Hopper, J.L. (23 July 2003)."Sexual factors and prostate cancer".BJU International.92(3). Wiley: 211–216.doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.2003.04319.x.ISSN1464-4096.PMID12887469.S2CID29430415.
  95. ^Dimitropoulou, Polyxeni; Easton, Douglas; Pocock, Richard; Dearnaley, David P.; Guy, Michelle; Edwards, Steven; O'Brien, Lynne; Hall, Amanda; Wilkinson, Rosemary;Eeles, Rosalind;Muir, Kenneth R.; Lophatananon, Artitaya (11 November 2008)."Sexual activity and prostate cancer risk in men diagnosed at a younger age".BJU International.103(2): 178–185.doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.08030.x.PMID19016689.S2CID6339070.
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  98. ^Robson, David (April 2008)."Masturbation could bring hay fever relief for men".New Scientist.Retrieved30 August2009.
  99. ^Sutherland, Tammy (8 June 2015)."Six healthy reasons to masturbate".Best Health Magazine.Reader's Digest Magazines (Canada).Retrieved4 July2013.Just as people fall into a deep sleep after sex with a partner, because blood pressure is lowered and relaxation is increased through the release of endorphins, masturbation is a good sleeping pill, "says Golden." It is relied on by many as a nightly occurrence.
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  101. ^Wenner, Melinda (2006)."Why do guys get sleepy after sex?".NYU Journalism (New York University).Retrieved4 July2013.The bottom line is this: there are many potential biochemical and evolutionary reasons for post-sex sleepiness, some direct and some indirect
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Further reading

External links

Look uponanismin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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