Jump to content

Meadow

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromMeadows)
For other uses, seeMeadow (disambiguation)andMeadows (disambiguation).
Wildflower meadow in theBavarian Alps

Ameadow(/ˈmɛdoʊ/MED-oh) is an openhabitator field,vegetatedbygrasses,herbs,and other non-woody plants.Treesorshrubsmay sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created fromclearedshrub orwoodlandfor the production ofhay,fodder,orlivestock.[1]Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed ofspecies nativeto the region, with only limited human intervention.

Living meadow,Austria

Meadows attract a multitude ofwildlife,and supportfloraandfaunathat could not thrive in other habitats. They areecologicallyimportant as they provide areas for animalcourtship displays,nesting,food gathering,pollinatinginsects, and sometimes sheltering, if the vegetation is high enough. Intensified agricultural practices (too frequent mowing, use of mineral fertilizers, manure and insecticides), may lead to declines in the abundance of organisms and species diversity.[2]There are multiple types of meadows, including agricultural, transitional, and perpetual – each playing a unique and important part of theecosystem.

Likeother biomes,meadows will experience increasedpressure(including ontheir biodiversity) due toclimate change,especially asprecipitationand weather conditions change. However,grasslandsand meadows also have an importantclimate change mitigationpotential ascarbon sinks;deep-rooted grasses store a substantial amount ofcarbon in soil.

Types

[edit]

Agricultural meadows

[edit]

Inagriculture,a meadow isgrasslandwhich is not regularlygrazedby domestic livestock, but rather allowed to grow unchecked in order to producehay.Their roots extend back to the Iron Age, when appropriate tools for the hay harvest emerged. The ability to produce livestock fodder on meadows had a significant advantage for livestock production, as animals could be kept in enclosures, simplifying the control over breeding. Surpluses in biomass production during the summer could be stored for the winter, preventing damages to forests and grasslands as there was no longer the need for livestock grazing during the winter.[1]

Especially in theUnited KingdomandIreland,the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean ahay meadow,signifying grasslandmownannually in the summer for makinghay.Agricultural meadows are typicallylowlandoruplandfields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed.[3]Traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England and Wales have lost about 97% of their hay meadows.[4]Fewer than 15,000 hectares (37,000 acres) of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UK's meadows are found inWorcestershire,with Foster's Green Meadow managed by theWorcestershire Wildlife Trustbeing a major site.[5]

A similar concept to the hay meadow is thepasture,which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out and periodically be cut for hay.[3]A pasture can also refer to any land used for grazing, and in this wider sense the term refers not only to grass pasture but also to non-grassland habitats such asheathland,moorlandandwood pasture.[6]The term,grassland,is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures.[7]

The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions. As mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room fororchardsorhoneyproduction. Meadows are embedded and dependent on a complex web of socio-cultural conditions for their maintenance. Historically, they emerged to increase agricultural efficiency when the necessary tools became available. Today, agricultural practices have shifted and meadows have largely lost their original purpose. Yet, they are appreciated today for their aesthetics and ecological functions. Consequently, the European Union'sCommon Agricultural Policysubsidizes their management, mostly through grazing.[1]

  • An uncut hay meadow.
    An uncuthaymeadow.
  • Montane hay meadows with haystacks.
    Montane hay meadows with haystacks.
  • An orchard meadow.
    Anorchardmeadow.
  • A meadow (pasture) maintained by grazing livestock.
    A meadow (pasture) maintained by grazing livestock.
  • Artificially grazed meadow.
    Artificially grazed meadow.
  • Artificial beehives.
    Artificial beehives.

Transitional meadows

[edit]

A transitional meadow occurs when afield,pasture,farmland,or other cleared land is no longer cut orgrazedand starts to display luxuriant growth, extending to the flowering and self-seeding of its grass and wildflower species.[8]The condition is however only temporary, because the grasses eventually become shaded out whenscrubandwoody plantsbecome well-established, being the forerunners of the return to a fully wooded state.[9]A transitional state can be artificially-maintained through a double-field system, in which cultivated soil and meadows are alternated for a period of 10 to 12 years each.[8]

InNorth Americaprior toEuropeancolonization,Algonquians,Iroquoisand otherNative Americanspeoples regularly cleared areas of forest to create transitional meadows wheredeerandgamecould find food and behunted.For example, some of today's meadows originated thousands of years ago, due to regular burnings by Native Americans.[9][10]

  • Abandoned meadow in England.
    Abandoned meadow in England.
  • The same landscape some years later.
    The same landscape some years later.
  • Conifers encroaching on a meadow in Washington, USA.
    Conifers encroaching on a meadow in Washington, USA.

Perpetual meadows

[edit]

A perpetual meadow, also called a natural meadow, is one in whichenvironmental factors,such as climatic andsoil conditions,are favorable to perennial grasses and restrict the growth of woody plants indefinitely.[11]Types of perpetual meadows may include:

Urban meadow

[edit]
Main article:Urban meadow
Southward view from the Nethermead Arches toward the Nethermead urban meadow inProspect Park,Brooklyn,New York City
Urban Meadow at Botaniska Trädgården,Uppsala,Sweden
An urban meadow atTifft Nature PreserveinBuffalo,New York

Recently, urban areas have been thought of as potential biodiversity conservation sites. The shift from urban lawns, that are widely spread habitats in cities, to urban meadows is thought to promote greater refuges for plant and animal communities. Urban lawns require intensive management that puts the life there at risk of losing their habitat, especially due to the mowing frequency. Cutting that mowing frequency has demonstrated to induce a clear positive effect on the plant community's diversity, which allows the switch from urban lawns to urban meadows.[12]

Due to increased urbanization, the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2017 decreed that there is a need to protect all ecosystems due to climate change. The majority of the people that live in the urban regions of any country usually get their plant knowledge from visiting parks and or public green infrastructure. Local authorities have the duty of providing the green spaces for the public, but these departments are constantly suffering major budget cuts, making it more difficult for people to admire natural wildlife in the urban sectors and also impairing the local ecosystem. In line with the increasing acceptance of a "messier urban aesthetic", the perennial meadows can be seen as a more realistic alternative to the classic urban lawns as they would also be more cost-efficient to maintain. Factors that managers of urban spaces list as important to regard are:

  • Aesthetics and public reaction
  • Locational context
  • Human Resources and economic sustainability
  • Local politics
  • Communication
  • Biodiversity and existing habitat
  • Physical factors.[13]
Urban meadows in comparison

Human intervention

[edit]

Artificially or culturally conceived meadows emerge from and continually require human intervention to persist and flourish. In many places, the natural, pristine populations of free-roaming largegrazersare either extinct or very limited due to human activities. This reduces or removes their natural influence on the surrounding ecology and results in meadows only being created or maintained by human intervention.[14]Existing meadows could potentially and gradually decline, if unmaintained byagriculturalpractices. Humankind has influenced the ecology and the landscape for millennia in many parts of the world, so it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is natural and what is cultural.[15]Meadows are one example. However, meadows seem to have been sustained historically by naturally occurring large grazers, which kept plant growth in checked and maintained the cleared space.[16][17]

Asextensive farminglike grazing is diminishing in some parts of the world, the meadow is endangered as a habitat. A number of research projects attempt to restore natural meadow habitats by reintroducing natural, large grazers.[14][16][17]These includedeer,elk,goat,wild horse,etc. depending on the location. A more exotic example with a wider scope is the EuropeanTauros Programme.[citation needed]

Some environmental organization recommend convertinglawnsto meadows by stopping or reducing mowing. They claim that meadows can better preservebiodiversity,water, reduce the use of fertilizers.[18]For example, in 2018 environmental organizations with the support of the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs of England, concerned by the decline in the number ofbeesworldwide, in the first day of Bees' Needs Week 2018 (9–15 July) give some recommendation how to preserve bees. The recommendations include 1) growing flowers, shrubs, and trees, 2) letting the garden grow wild, 3) cutting grass less often, 4) leaving insect nest and hibernation spots alone, and 5) using careful consideration with pesticides.[19]

Impact of tourism

[edit]

The impact of human activity has been noted to increase degradation of meadow soil. This has contributed to landslides inSholas.E.g. due to skiing activities and urbanization, the meadows of the town of Zakopane, Poland, were noted to have altered soil compositions. The soil's organic material had faded away and was affected due to the chemicals from the artificial melting water from the snow and skiing machinery.[20]

Meadows and climate change

[edit]

Ecological consequences

[edit]

Climate changes impact temperature precipitation patterns worldwide. The effects are regionally very different but generally, temperatures tend to increase, snowpacks tend to melt earlier and many places tend to become drier. Many species respond to these changes by slowly moving their habitat upwards.[21]The increased elevation decreases mean temperatures and thus allows for species to largely maintain their original habitat. Another common response to changed environmental conditions arephenologicaladaptations.These include shifts in the timing of germination or blossoming. Other examples include for example changing migration patterns of birds of passage. These adaptations are primarily influenced by three drivers:

  • Increased temperature
  • Changing precipitation patterns
  • Reduced snowpack and earlier melting

In the meadows, as water turned out to be all the more scant, that implies less dampness for the plants.[22]The blooming plants do not develop too and hence do not give much food to the creatures. These kinds of changes in the plants could influence population of buffalo just as numerous other more creatures, including bugs and insects.

Effects of higher temperatures

[edit]

In response to temperature changes, flowering plants can respond through either spatial or temporal shifts. A spatial shift refers to the migration towards colder areas, often on higher altitudes.[23]A temporal shift means that a plant may alter its phenology to blossom at a different time of the year. By moving towards the early spring or late autumn they can restore their previous temperature conditions. These adaptations are limited through. Spatial shifts may be difficult if the areas are already inhabited by other species, or when the plant is reliant on specific hydrology or soil type.[24]Other authors have shown that higher temperatures can increase total biomass, but temperature shocks and instability seem to have negative impacts on biodiversity.[25]This even appears to be the case for multiyear species, which were previously considered to have a buffering effect onextreme weatherevents.[25]

Effects of changing precipitation patterns

[edit]

There is a variety of hydrological regimes for meadows, ranging from dry to humid, each yielding different plant communities adapted to the respective provider of water. A shift in precipitation patterns has very different effects, depending on the type of meadow. Meadows that are either dry or wet appear to be rather resilient to change, as a moderate increase or decrease in precipitation does not radically alter their character. Meanwhile, mesic meadows, with a moderate supply of water do change their character as it is easier to tip them into a different regime.[24]Dry meadows in particular are threatened by the invasion ofshrubsand other woody plants and a decreasing prevalence of floweringforbs,whereas hydric sites tend to lose woody species.[26][27][24]Due to the dryer upper soil layers, forbs with shallow roots have difficulties obtaining enough water. Woody plants in contrast with their lower-reaching root systems can still extract water stored in lower soil layers and are able to sustain themselves through longer drought periods with their stored water reserves. In the longer term, changing hydrologic regimes may also facilitate the establishment ofinvasive speciesthat may be better adapted to the new conditions.[24]The effects are already quite visible, an example is the substitution of Alpine meadows in the southern Himalayas through shrubland. Climate change appears to be an important driver of this process.[28]Wetter winters in contrast might increase total biomass, but favour already competitive species.[26]By harming specialised plants and promoting the prevalence of more generalist species, more unstable precipitation patterns could also reduce ecological biodiversity.[26]

Effects of reduced snowpacks

[edit]

Snow covers are directly related to changes in temperature, precipitation and cloud cover. Still, changes in the timing of the snowmelt seem to be, particularly in alpine regions, an important determinant for phenological responses.[29]There is even data suggesting that the impact of snowmelt is even higher than the warming alone. Earlier are not uniformly positive for plants though, as moisture injected through snow-melt might be missing later in the year. Additionally, it might allow for longer periods of seed predation. Problematic is also the lack of the insulating snow cover, springtime frost events might have a larger negative impact.[30]

Effects on ecological communities

[edit]

All the drivers mentioned above give rise to complex, non-linear community responses.[31]These responses can be disentangled by looking at multiple climate drivers and species together. As different species show varying degrees of phenological responses, the consequence is a so-called phenological reassembly, where the structure of the ecosystem changes fundamentally. Phenological responses in blossoming periods of certain plants may not coincide with the phenological shifts of their pollinators[31]or growing periods of plant communities relying on each other may start to diverge.[29]A study of meadows in the Rocky Mountains revealed the emergence of a mid-season period with little floral activity.[32]Specifically, the study identified that the typical mid-summer floral peak was composed out of several consecutive peaks in dry, mesic and wet meadow systems. Phenological responses to climate change let these distinct peaks diverge, leading to a gap during mid-summer. This poses a threat to pollinators relying on a continuous supply of floral resources. As ecological communities are often highly adapted to local circumstances which can not be reproduced at higher elevations, Debinski et al. describe the short-term changes observed on meadows "as a shift in the mosaic of the landscape composition".[24]Therefore, it is important to monitor not only how specific species respond to climate change, but to also investigate them in the context of different habitats they occur in.[citation needed]

Phenological reassembly

[edit]

Animals as well as plants are changing rapidly to the anthropogenic global warming, and the number of individuals, habitat occupancy, changing reproductive cycles are the strategies to adapt to this severe and unpredictable environment alterations. The different types of meadows all around the planet are different communities of plants (perennial and annual plants) that constantly are interacting with each other to stay alive and reproduce. Timing and duration of flowering is one of the phenological reassembly driven by many different factors like snow melt, temperature and soil moisture to mention a few. All of the changes that a plant or an animal may go through are depending in habitat's topography, altitude, and latitude of a specific organism. It is important to monitor properly the plants because they are one of the best bioindicators of how climate change is affecting the planet.[31]

Flowering phenology is one of the most important features of plant in order to survive any type of adversity. Thanks to different modern techniques and constant monitoring we can assure which ecological strategy the plants are using in order to multiply their species. In alpine meadow of the eastern Tibet notorious variances and similarities were observed between annual and perennial plants. Where perennial plants flowering peak date was directly proportional to the duration and inversely proportional in annuals plants. This is just a limited quantity of many relationships on phenology and functional traits interacting with the environment to survive.[33]

Extreme weather

[edit]

Climate change is increasing temperatures all over the world, and boreal regions are more susceptible to suffer noticeable changes. An experiment was conducted to monitor the reaction of alpine arctic meadow plants to different patterns of increased temperatures. This experiment was based on vascular plants that live in arctic and subarctic environments within three different levels of vegetation: canopy layer, bottom layer and functional groups. It is crucial to keep in mind that these plants are usually sharing the space and constantly interacting with bryophytes, lichens, arthropods, animals and many other organisms. The result was a clear adaptation of a constant pattern that plants recognized and had time to reach thermal acclimation meaning that they got a net carbon gain by intensifying photosynthesis and slightly increasing respiration thanks to a warmer climate for a reasonable time period. However, plants that suffer changes of any kind (not only temperature rising and falling) in a short period of time are more likely to die because they did not have enough time to reach thermal acclimation.[34]

Meadow restorations

[edit]

Carbon storage in meadows

[edit]

Meadows can act as substantialsinks and sourcesof organic carbon, holding vast quantities of it in the soil. The fluxes of carbon depend mainly on the natural cycle of carbon uptake and efflux, which interplays with seasonal variations (e.g. non-growing vs growing season). The wide range of meadow subtypes have in turn differing attributes (like plant configurations) affecting the area's ability to act as sinks;seagrass meadowsare for instant identified as some of the more important sinks in the globalcarbon cycle.In the instance of seagrass meadows, enhanced production of other greenhouse gases (CH4and N2O) does occur but the estimated overall effect results in an offset of the total emission. Meanwhile, a usual driver of meadow loss (except for direct alterations due to human development) isclimate change,consequently increasing carbon emissions and bringing up the topic of restoration projects which in some cases have prompted initiated meadow restorations (e.g.Zostera marinameadow in Virginia U.S.A).[35]

Grassland degradations

[edit]

Wheregrasslanddegradation has occurred, significant alterations to the carbon dioxide efflux during the non-growing season may take place. Both climate change andovergrazingfactor into the degradation. As exemplified by the alpine wetland meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, there is the potential of being a moderate source of CO2and a carbon sink, due to high soil organic content and low decomposition. The more the dynamics have been quantified, however, the effects of degradation become more tangible.[36]A strong connection between grassland degradationand soil carbon loss has been seen, pinpointing that carbon dioxide release is being stimulated by this event. This subsequently indicates aclimate change mitigationpotential by restoring degraded grassland.[37]

Cap-and-trade

[edit]

Being a market-based regulation of emissions, thecap-and-tradesystem can in some instances be found incorporating restoration projects for climate mitigation. For example, the cap-and-trade program in California is looking at how meadow restorations can be incorporated into their system of reducing carbon emissions. The preliminary studies are, as depicted by Audubon, pointing at the potential of storing a substantially increased amount of soil carbon compared to degraded meadows, while boosting the local biodiversity.[38]Most recently though, during the COVID-19 pandemic, difficulties with restoration are beginning to show: During the first years, areas under restoration are vulnerable to outside disruption, like meadow management put on hold when the ecosystem is most sensitive, for example to invasive species.[39]

See also

[edit]
Some subtypes of meadows: Closely related habitats:

References

[edit]
  1. ^abcEriksson, Ove (2020)."Origin and Development of Managed Meadows in Sweden: A Review".Rural Landscapes: Society, Environment, History.7(1).doi:10.16993/rl.51.ISSN2002-0104.
  2. ^Knozowski, Paweł; Nowakowski, Jacek J.; Stawicka, Anna Maria; Górski, Andrzej; Dulisz, Beata (2023-11-10)."Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland)".Science of the Total Environment.898:165280.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165280.ISSN0048-9697.PMID37419354.
  3. ^abMeadowThe New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved June 18, 2013.
  4. ^Rebecca Morelle:Conservationists warn of hay meadow declineBBC News Science & Environment, June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2013.
  5. ^James HitchcockFields of GoldWorcestershire Life May 2013 p75
  6. ^PastureThe New International Encyclopedia, 1905. Retrieved July 5, 2013.
  7. ^Rackham, Oliver (2013-01-01),"Land-Use Patterns, Historic",in Levin, Simon A (ed.),Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition),Waltham: Academic Press, pp. 569–582,ISBN978-0-12-384720-1,retrieved2023-05-02
  8. ^abHelena Ruzickova and Miroslav Bural, "Grasslands of the East Carpathian Biosphere Reserve in Slovakia," In: Office of Central Europe and Eurasia National Research Council, Biodiversity Conservation in Transboundary Protected Areas, National Academies Press, Sept 27, 1996, p. 233-236.
  9. ^abRobert Griffiths et al.:Conifer Invasion of Forest Meadows Transforms Soil Characteristics in the Pacific NorthwestForest Ecology and Management 208, 2005, p. 347-358. Retrieved June 18, 2013.
  10. ^Geoffery A. Hammerson, Connecticut Wildlife: Biodiversity, Natural History, and Conservation, UPNE, 2004.
  11. ^T. A. Rabotinov, "Meadow," The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed), 1979.http://slovari.yandex.ru/(in Russian), Retrieved June 18, 2013.
  12. ^Chollet, Simon; Brabant, Charlotte; Tessier, Samson; Jung, Vincent (December 2018). "From urban lawns to urban meadows: Reduction of mowing frequency increases plant taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity".Landscape and Urban Planning.180:121–124.doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.08.009.S2CID92366337.
  13. ^Hoyle, Helen; Jorgensen, Anna; Warren, Philip; Dunnett, Nigel; Evans, Karl (July 2017).""Not in their front yard" The opportunities and challenges of introducing perennial urban meadows: A local authority stakeholder perspective ".Urban Forestry & Urban Greening.25:139–149.doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2017.05.009.
  14. ^abNatural grazingArchived2017-06-20 at theWayback MachineFoundation for Restoring European Ecosystems
  15. ^TRInetArchived2013-12-10 at theWayback MachineReport on the state of the natural and semi-natural grasslands in the Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries.
  16. ^ab"Natural Grazing – Practices in the Rewilding of Cattle and Horses".Rewilding Europe. 2015. Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2015.Retrieved16 December2015.
  17. ^abMiddleton, Beth A.; Holsten, Bettina; Van Diggelen, Rudy (2006). "Biodiversity management of fens and fen meadows by grazing, cutting and burning".Applied Vegetation Science.9(2): 307–316.doi:10.1111/j.1654-109X.2006.tb00680.x.
  18. ^MCLENDON, RUSSELL."Why flowering meadows are better than lawns".Mother Nature Network.2018 NARRATIVE CONTENT GROUP.Retrieved9 July2018.
  19. ^"Bees' Needs Week 2018".Bumblebee Conservation Trust.Retrieved9 July2018.
  20. ^Ciarkowska, Krystyna (May 2018). "Assessment of heavy metal pollution risks and enzyme activity of meadow soils in urban area under tourism load: a case study from Zakopane (Poland)".Environmental Science and Pollution Research International.25(14): 13709–13718.doi:10.1007/s11356-018-1589-y.ISSN1614-7499.PMID29504077.S2CID3675141.
  21. ^"Ecosystem Shift: How Global Climate Change is Reshaping the Biosphere".Science in the News.2014-06-30.Retrieved2020-04-26.
  22. ^"Climate change impacts 'medium' meadows".Futurity.2010-07-09.Retrieved2021-06-24.
  23. ^Parmesan, Camille; Yohe, Gary (January 2003). "A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems".Nature.421(6918): 37–42.Bibcode:2003Natur.421...37P.doi:10.1038/nature01286.ISSN0028-0836.PMID12511946.S2CID1190097.
  24. ^abcdeDebinski, Diane M.; Wickham, Hadley; Kindscher, Kelly; Caruthers, Jennet C.; Germino, Matthew (2010). "Montane meadow change during drought varies with background hydrologic regime and plant functional group".Ecology.91(6): 1672–1681.doi:10.1890/09-0567.1.hdl:1808/16593.ISSN0012-9658.PMID20583709.
  25. ^abAlatalo, Juha M.; Jägerbrand, Annika K.; Molau, Ulf (2016-02-18)."Impacts of different climate change regimes and extreme climatic events on an alpine meadow community".Scientific Reports.6(1): 21720.Bibcode:2016NatSR...621720A.doi:10.1038/srep21720.ISSN2045-2322.PMC4757884.PMID26888225.
  26. ^abcNatural England, UK."Climate Change Adaption Manual – Lowland meadow".Publications Natural England.Retrieved10 May2020.
  27. ^Natural England, UK."Climate Change Adaption Manual – Upland hay meadow".Publications Natural England.Retrieved10 May2020.
  28. ^Brandt, Jodi S.; Haynes, Michelle A.; Kuemmerle, Tobias; Waller, Donald M.; Radeloff, Volker C. (February 2013). "Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine meadows converting to shrublands in the southern Himalayas".Biological Conservation.158:116–127.doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.026.ISSN0006-3207.
  29. ^abForrest, Jessica; Inouye, David W.; Thomson, James D. (February 2010). "Flowering phenology in subalpine meadows: Does climate variation influence community co-flowering patterns?".Ecology.91(2): 431–440.doi:10.1890/09-0099.1.ISSN0012-9658.PMID20392008.
  30. ^Sherwood, J. A.; Debinski, D. M.; Caragea, P. C.; Germino, M. J. (March 2017)."Effects of experimentally reduced snowpack and passive warming on montane meadow plant phenology and floral resources".Ecosphere.8(3): e01745.doi:10.1002/ecs2.1745.ISSN2150-8925.
  31. ^abcTheobald, Elli J.; Breckheimer, Ian; HilleRisLambers, Janneke (2017-10-11)."Climate drives phenological reassembly of a mountain wildflower meadow community".Ecology.98(11): 2799–2812.doi:10.1002/ecy.1996.ISSN0012-9658.PMID29023677.
  32. ^Aldridge, George; Inouye, David W.; Forrest, Jessica R. K.; Barr, William A.; Miller-Rushing, Abraham J. (2011-03-16)."Emergence of a mid-season period of low floral resources in a montane meadow ecosystem associated with climate change".Journal of Ecology.99(4): 905–913.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01826.x.ISSN0022-0477.
  33. ^Jia, Peng; Bayaerta, Twenke; Li, Xiangqian; Du, Guozhen (1 November 2011)."Relationships between Flowering Phenology and Functional Traits in Eastern Tibet Alpine Meadow".Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research.43(4): 585–592.doi:10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.585.ISSN1523-0430.S2CID86269564.
  34. ^Alatalo, Juha M.; Jägerbrand, Annika K.; Molau, Ulf (2016)."Impacts of different climate change regimes and extreme climatic events on an alpine meadow community".Scientific Reports.6:21720.Bibcode:2016NatSR...621720A.doi:10.1038/srep21720.PMC4757884.PMID26888225.
  35. ^Oreska, Matthew P. J.; McGlathery, Karen J.; Aoki, Lillian R.; Berger, Amélie C.; Berg, Peter; Mullins, Lindsay (30 April 2020)."The greenhouse gas offset potential from seagrass restoration".Scientific Reports.10(1): 7325.Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.7325O.doi:10.1038/s41598-020-64094-1.PMC7193639.PMID32355280.
  36. ^Zhao, L.; Li, J.; Xu, S.; Zhou, H.; Li, Y.; Gu, S.; Zhao, X. (6 April 2010)."Seasonal variations in carbon dioxide exchange in an alpine wetland meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau".Biogeosciences.7(4): 1207–1221.Bibcode:2010BGeo....7.1207Z.doi:10.5194/bg-7-1207-2010.
  37. ^Ma, Lei; Yao, Zhisheng; Zheng, Xunhua; Zhang, Han; Wang, Kai; Zhu, Bo; Wang, Rui; Zhang, Wei; Liu, Chunyan (11 July 2018). "Increasing grassland degradation stimulates the non-growing season CO2 emissions from an alpine meadow on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau".Environmental Science and Pollution Research.25(26): 26576–26591.doi:10.1007/s11356-018-2724-5.PMID29995209.S2CID51615931.
  38. ^"Can Restored Meadows Fight Climate Change? California Seeks to Find Out".Audubon.19 July 2017.
  39. ^"From Meadow to Marsh, Habitats May Take a Hit During Pandemic".Audubon.20 April 2020.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meadow&oldid=1228504570"