Measurement problem

Inquantum mechanics,themeasurement problemis theproblem of definite outcomes:quantum systems have superpositions but quantum measurements only give one definite result.^[1]^[2]

Thewave functioninquantum mechanicsevolvesdeterministicallyaccording to theSchrödinger equationas a linearsuperpositionof different states. However, actual measurements always find the physical system in a definite state. Any future evolution of the wave function is based on the state the system was discovered to be in when the measurement was made, meaning that the measurement "did something" to the system that is not obviously a consequence ofSchrödinger evolution.The measurement problem is describing what that "something" is, how a superposition of many possible values becomes a single measured value.

To express matters differently (paraphrasingSteven Weinberg),^[3]^[4]the Schrödinger equation determines the wave function at any later time. If observers and their measuring apparatus are themselves described by a deterministic wave function, why can we not predict precise results for measurements, but only probabilities? As a general question: How can one establish a correspondence between quantum reality and classical reality?^[5]

Schrödinger's cat

A thought experiment calledSchrödinger's catillustrates the measurement problem. A mechanism is arranged to kill a cat if a quantum event, such as the decay of a radioactive atom, occurs. The mechanism and the cat are enclosed in a chamber so the fate of the cat is unknown until the chamber is opened. Prior to observation, according to quantum mechanics, the atom is in aquantum superposition,alinear combinationof decayed and intact states. Also according to quantum mechanics, the atom-mechanism-cat composite system is described by superpositions of compound states. Therefore, the cat would be described as in a superposition, a linear combination of two states an "intact atom-alive cat" and a "decayed atom-dead cat". However, when the chamber is opened the cat is either alive or it is dead: there is no superposition observed. After the measurement the cat is definitively alive or dead.^[6]^: 154

The cat scenario illustrates the measurement problem: how can an indefinite superposition yield a single definite outcome? It also illustrates other issues in quantum measurement,^[7]^: 585including when does a measurement occur? Was it when the cat was observed? How is a measurement apparatus defined? The mechanism for detecting radioactive decay? The cat? The chamber? What the role of theobserver?

Interpretations

The views often grouped together as theCopenhagen interpretationare the oldest and, collectively, probably still the most widely held attitude about quantum mechanics.^[8]^[9]N. David Mermincoined the phrase "Shut up and calculate!" to summarize Copenhagen-type views, a saying often misattributed toRichard Feynmanand which Mermin later found insufficiently nuanced.^[10]^[11]

Generally, views in the Copenhagen tradition posit something in the act of observation which results in thecollapse of the wave function.This concept, though often attributed toNiels Bohr,was due toWerner Heisenberg,whose later writings obscured many disagreements he and Bohr had during their collaboration and that the two never resolved.^[12]^[13]In these schools of thought, wave functions may be regarded as statistical information about a quantum system, and wave function collapse is the updating of that information in response to new data.^[14]^[15]Exactly how to understand this process remains a topic of dispute.^[16]

Bohr discussed his views in a 1947 letter to Pauli.^[17]Bohr points out that the measurement processes such as cloud chambers or photographic plates involve enormous amplification requiring energies far in excess of the quantum effects being studied and he notes that these processes are irreversible.^[18]He considered a consistent account of this issue to be an unsolved problem.

Hugh Everett'smany-worlds interpretationattempts to solve the problem by suggesting that there is only one wave function, the superposition of the entire universe, and it never collapses—so there is no measurement problem. Instead, the act of measurement is simply an interaction between quantum entities, e.g. observer, measuring instrument, electron/positron etc., which entangle to form a single larger entity, for instanceliving cat/happy scientist.Everett also attempted to demonstrate how the probabilistic nature ofquantum mechanicswould appear in measurements, a work later extended byBryce DeWitt.However, proponents of the Everettian program have not yet reached a consensus regarding the correct way to justify the use of theBorn ruleto calculate probabilities.^[19]^[20]

Thede Broglie–Bohm theorytries to solve the measurement problem very differently: the information describing the system contains not only the wave function, but also supplementary data (a trajectory) giving the position of the particle(s). The role of the wave function is to generate the velocity field for the particles. These velocities are such that the probability distribution for the particle remains consistent with the predictions of the orthodox quantum mechanics. According to de Broglie–Bohm theory, interaction with the environment during a measurement procedure separates the wave packets in configuration space, which is where apparent wave function collapse comes from, even though there is no actual collapse.^[21]

A fourth approach is given byobjective-collapse models.In such models, theSchrödinger equationis modified and obtains nonlinear terms. These nonlinear modifications are ofstochasticnature and lead to behaviour that for microscopic quantum objects, e.g. electrons or atoms, is unmeasurably close to that given by the usual Schrödinger equation. For macroscopic objects, however, the nonlinear modification becomes important and induces the collapse of the wave function. Objective-collapse models areeffective theories.The stochastic modification is thought to stem from some external non-quantum field, but the nature of this field is unknown. One possible candidate is the gravitational interaction as in the models of Diósi andPenrose.The main difference of objective-collapse models compared to the other approaches is that they makefalsifiablepredictions that differ from standard quantum mechanics. Experiments are already getting close to the parameter regime where these predictions can be tested.^[22]

TheGhirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) theoryproposes that wave function collapse happens spontaneously as part of the dynamics. Particles have a non-zero probability of undergoing a "hit", or spontaneous collapse of the wave function, on the order of once every hundred million years.^[23]Though collapse is extremely rare, the sheer number of particles in a measurement system means that the probability of a collapse occurring somewhere in the system is high. Since the entire measurement system is entangled (by quantum entanglement), the collapse of a single particle initiates the collapse of the entire measurement apparatus. Because the GRW theory makes different predictions from orthodox quantum mechanics in some conditions, it is not an interpretation of quantum mechanics in a strict sense.

The role of decoherence

Erich JoosandHeinz-Dieter Zehclaim that the phenomenon ofquantum decoherence,which was put on firm ground in the 1980s, resolves the problem.^[24]The idea is that the environment causes the classical appearance of macroscopic objects. Zeh further claims that decoherence makes it possible to identify the fuzzy boundary between the quantum microworld and the world where the classical intuition is applicable.^[25]^[26]Quantum decoherence becomes an important part of some modern updates of theCopenhagen interpretationbased onconsistent histories.^[27]^[28]Quantum decoherence does not describe the actual collapse of the wave function, but it explains the conversion of the quantum probabilities (that exhibitinterferenceeffects) to the ordinary classical probabilities. See, for example, Zurek,^[5]Zeh^[25]and Schlosshauer.^[29]

The present situation is slowly clarifying, described in a 2006 article by Schlosshauer as follows:^[30]

Several decoherence-unrelated proposals have been put forward in the past to elucidate the meaning of probabilities and arrive at theBorn rule... It is fair to say that no decisive conclusion appears to have been reached as to the success of these derivations....
As it is well known, [many papers by Bohr insist upon] the fundamental role of classical concepts. The experimental evidence for superpositions of macroscopically distinct states on increasingly large length scales counters such a dictum. Superpositions appear to be novel and individually existing states, often without any classical counterparts. Only the physical interactions between systems then determine a particular decomposition into classical states from the view of each particular system. Thus classical concepts are to be understood as locally emergent in a relative-state sense and should no longer claim a fundamental role in the physical theory.

References and notes

^Schlosshauer, Maximilian (2005-02-23)."Decoherence, the measurement problem, and interpretations of quantum mechanics".Reviews of Modern Physics.76(4): 1267–1305.arXiv:quant-ph/0312059.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.1267.ISSN 0034-6861.
^Leggett, A. J. (2005-02-11)."The Quantum Measurement Problem".Science.307(5711): 871–872.doi:10.1126/science.1109541.ISSN 0036-8075.
^Weinberg, Steven (1998)."The Great Reduction: Physics in the Twentieth Century".In Michael Howard & William Roger Louis (eds.).The Oxford History of the Twentieth Century.Oxford University Press. p.26.ISBN 0-19-820428-0.
^Weinberg, Steven (November 2005)."Einstein's Mistakes".Physics Today.58(11): 31–35.Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..31W.doi:10.1063/1.2155755.S2CID 120594692.
^^a ^bZurek, Wojciech Hubert (22 May 2003). "Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical".Reviews of Modern Physics.75(3): 715–775.arXiv:quant-ph/0105127.Bibcode:2003RvMP...75..715Z.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.715.S2CID 14759237.
^Baggott, J. E. (2013).The quantum story: a history in 40 moments(Impression: 3 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.ISBN 978-0-19-965597-7.
^Griffiths, David J.; Schroeter, Darrell F. (2018-08-16).Introduction to Quantum Mechanics.Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/9781316995433.ISBN 978-1-316-99543-3.
^Schlosshauer, Maximilian; Kofler, Johannes; Zeilinger, Anton (August 2013). "A snapshot of foundational attitudes toward quantum mechanics".Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B.44(3): 222–230.arXiv:1301.1069.Bibcode:2013SHPMP..44..222S.doi:10.1016/j.shpsb.2013.04.004.S2CID 55537196.
^Ball, Philip(2013)."Experts still split about what quantum theory means".Nature.doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12198.S2CID 124012568.
^Mermin, N. David(1989). "What's Wrong with this Pillow?".Physics Today.42(4): 9.Bibcode:1989PhT....42d...9D.doi:10.1063/1.2810963.
^Mermin, N. David(2004)."Could Feynman have said this?".Physics Today.57(5): 10–11.Bibcode:2004PhT....57e..10M.doi:10.1063/1.1768652.
^Howard, Don (December 2004)."Who Invented the" Copenhagen Interpretation "? A Study in Mythology".Philosophy of Science.71(5): 669–682.doi:10.1086/425941.ISSN 0031-8248.S2CID 9454552.
^Camilleri, Kristian (May 2009)."Constructing the Myth of the Copenhagen Interpretation".Perspectives on Science.17(1): 26–57.doi:10.1162/posc.2009.17.1.26.ISSN 1063-6145.S2CID 57559199.
^Englert, Berthold-Georg(2013-11-22). "On quantum theory".The European Physical Journal D.67(11): 238.arXiv:1308.5290.Bibcode:2013EPJD...67..238E.doi:10.1140/epjd/e2013-40486-5.ISSN 1434-6079.S2CID 119293245.
^Peierls, Rudolf(1991). "In defence of" measurement "".Physics World.4(1): 19–21.doi:10.1088/2058-7058/4/1/19.ISSN 2058-7058.
^Healey, Richard (2016)."Quantum-Bayesian and Pragmatist Views of Quantum Theory".In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
^Bohr, Niels(1985) [May 16, 1947], Jørgen Kalckar (ed.),Niels Bohr: Collected Works,vol. 6: Foundations of Quantum Physics I (1926–1932), pp. 451–454
^Stenholm, Stig(1983), "To fathom space and time", inMeystre, Pierre(ed.),Quantum Optics, Experimental Gravitation, and Measurement Theory,Plenum Press, p. 121,The role of irreversibility in the theory of measurement has been emphasized by many. Only this way can a permanent record be obtained. The fact that separate pointer positions must be of the asymptotic nature usually associated with irreversibility has been utilized in the measurement theory of Daneri, Loinger and Prosperi (1962). It has been accepted as a formal representation of Bohr's ideas by Rosenfeld (1966).
^Kent, Adrian(2010). "One world versus many: the inadequacy of Everettian accounts of evolution, probability, and scientific confirmation".Many Worlds?.Oxford University Press.pp. 307–354.arXiv:0905.0624.ISBN 9780199560561.OCLC 696602007.
^Barrett, Jeffrey (2018)."Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics".In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
^Sheldon, Goldstein(2017)."Bohmian Mechanics".In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
^Bassi, Angelo; Lochan, Kinjalk; Satin, Seema; Singh, Tejinder P.; Ulbricht, Hendrik (2013). "Models of wave-function collapse, underlying theories, and experimental tests".Reviews of Modern Physics.85(2): 471–527.arXiv:1204.4325.Bibcode:2013RvMP...85..471B.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.85.471.S2CID 119261020.
^Bell, J. S. (2004). "Are there quantum jumps?". Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics. pp. 201–212.
^Joos, E.; Zeh, H. D. (June 1985). "The emergence of classical properties through interaction with the environment".Zeitschrift für Physik B.59(2): 223–243.Bibcode:1985ZPhyB..59..223J.doi:10.1007/BF01725541.S2CID 123425824.
^^a ^bZeh, H. D. (2003). "Chapter 2: Basic Concepts and Their Interpretation". In Joos, E. (ed.).Decoherence and the Appearance of a Classical World in Quantum Theory(2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 7.arXiv:quant-ph/9506020.Bibcode:2003dacw.conf....7Z.ISBN 3-540-00390-8.
^Jaeger, Gregg (September 2014). "What in the (quantum) world is macroscopic?".American Journal of Physics.82(9): 896–905.Bibcode:2014AmJPh..82..896J.doi:10.1119/1.4878358.
^Belavkin, V. P. (1994). "Nondemolition principle of quantum measurement theory".Foundations of Physics.24(5): 685–714.arXiv:quant-ph/0512188.Bibcode:1994FoPh...24..685B.doi:10.1007/BF02054669.S2CID 2278990.
^Belavkin, V. P. (2001). "Quantum noise, bits and jumps: uncertainties, decoherence, measurements and filtering".Progress in Quantum Electronics.25(1): 1–53.arXiv:quant-ph/0512208.Bibcode:2001PQE....25....1B.doi:10.1016/S0079-6727(00)00011-2.
^Maximilian Schlosshauer (2005). "Decoherence, the measurement problem, and interpretations of quantum mechanics".Reviews of Modern Physics.76(4): 1267–1305.arXiv:quant-ph/0312059.Bibcode:2004RvMP...76.1267S.doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.1267.S2CID 7295619.
^Schlosshauer, Maximilian (January 2006). "Experimental motivation and empirical consistency in minimal no-collapse quantum mechanics".Annals of Physics.321(1): 112–149.arXiv:quant-ph/0506199.Bibcode:2006AnPhy.321..112S.doi:10.1016/j.aop.2005.10.004.S2CID 55561902.

Measurement problem

Schrödinger's cat

Interpretations

The role of decoherence

See also

References and notes

Further reading