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Middle-earth
The Lord of the Ringslocation
A detail of Middle-earth in one ofPeter Jackson's film sets
Created byJ. R. R. Tolkien
GenreFantasy
In-universe information
TypeCentral continent offantasy world;also used asa short-handfor the wholelegendarium

Middle-earthis thesettingof much of the English writerJ. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy. The term is equivalent to theMiðgarðrofNorse mythologyandMiddangeardinOld Englishworks, includingBeowulf.Middle-earth is theoecumene(i.e. the human-inhabited world, or the central continent ofEarth), in Tolkien's imaginedmythological past.Tolkien's most widely read works,The HobbitandThe Lord of the Rings,are set entirely in Middle-earth. "Middle-earth" has also becomea short-hand termforTolkien's legendarium,his large body of fantasy writings, and for the entirety of his fictional world.

Middle-earth is the main continent ofEarth (Arda)in an imaginary period of the Earth's past, ending with Tolkien'sThird Age,about 6,000 years ago.[T 1]Tolkien's tales of Middle-earth mostly focus on the north-west of the continent. This part of Middle-earth is suggestive of Europe, the north-west of theOld World,with the environs ofthe Shirereminiscent of England,but, more specifically, theWest Midlands,with the town at its centre,Hobbiton,at the same latitude asOxford.

Tolkien'sMiddle-earth is peoplednot only byMen,but byElves,Dwarves,Ents,andHobbits,and by monsters including Dragons,Trolls,andOrcs.Through the imagined history, the peoples other than Men dwindle, leave or fade, until, after the period described in the books, only Men are left on the planet.

Context: Tolkien's legendarium[edit]

Arda began as a symmetrical flat disc, and was repeatedly transformed through cataclysmic interventions by theValarand by the creator,Eru Ilúvatar.

Tolkien's stories chronicle the struggle to control the world (calledArda) and the continent of Middle-earth between, on one side, the angelicValar,theElvesand their allies amongMen;and, on the other, the demonicMelkororMorgoth(a Vala fallen into evil), his followers, and their subjects, mostlyOrcs,Dragonsand enslaved Men.[T 2]In later ages, after Morgoth's defeat and expulsion from Arda, his place is taken by his lieutenantSauron,aMaia.[T 3]

The Valar withdrew from direct involvement in the affairs of Middle-earth after the defeat of Morgoth, but in later years they sent the wizards orIstarito help in the struggle against Sauron. The most important wizards wereGandalf the GreyandSaruman the White.Gandalf remained true to his mission and proved crucial in the fight against Sauron. Saruman, however, became corrupted and sought to establish himself as a rival to Sauron for absolute power in Middle-earth. Other races involved in the struggle against evil wereDwarves,Entsand most famouslyHobbits.The early stages of the conflict are chronicled inThe Silmarillion,while the final stages of the struggle to defeat Sauron are told inThe Hobbitand inThe Lord of the Rings.[T 3]

Sketch map of Middle-earth during the Third AgeThe ShireOld ForestBreeRivendellEreborEsgarothMoriaIsengardMirkwoodLothlórienFangornMordorGondorRohanHaradcommons:File:Sketch Map of Middle-earth.svg
Image mapwith clickable links of the north-west ofMiddle-earthat the end of theThird Age,showing Eriador (left) andRhovanion(right). At extreme left are Lindon and the Blue Mountains, all that remains ofBeleriandafter theWar of Wrath.

Conflict over the possession and control of precious or magical objects is a recurring theme in the stories. TheFirst Ageis dominated by the doomed quest of the elfFëanorand most of hisNoldorinclan to recover three precious jewels called theSilmarilsthat Morgoth stole from them (hence the titleThe Silmarillion). TheSecondandThird Ageare dominated by the forging of theRings of Power,and the fate of theOne Ringforged by Sauron, which gives its wearer the power to control or influence those wearing the other Rings of Power.[T 3]

Etymology[edit]

MedievalChristian cosmology:heavenabove, earth in the middle,hellbelow.[1]Vank Cathedral,Isfahan.

In ancientGermanic mythology,the world of Men is known by several names. TheOld Englishmiddangearddescends from an earlierGermanicword and so hascognatessuch as theOld NorseMiðgarðrfromNorse mythology,transliterated to modern English asMidgard.The original meaning of the second element, from proto-Germanicgardaz,was "enclosure", cognate with English "yard";middangeardwas assimilated by folk etymology to "middle earth".[T 4][2]Middle-earth was at the centre of nine worlds in Norse mythology, and of three worlds (withheavenabove,hellbelow) in the laterChristian version.[1]

Use by Tolkien[edit]

Tolkien's first encounter with the termmiddangeard,as he stated in a letter, was in an Old English fragment he studied in 1913–1914:[T 5]

Éala éarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended.
Hail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle-earth sent unto men.

This is from theCristpoems byCynewulf.The nameÉarendelwas the inspiration for Tolkien's marinerEärendil,[T 5]who set sail from the lands of Middle-earth to ask for aid from the angelic powers, theValar.Tolkien's earliest poem about Eärendil, from 1914, the same year he read theCristpoems, refers to "the mid-world's rim".[3]Tolkien consideredmiddangeardto be "the abiding place of men",[T 6]the physical world in which Man lives out his life and destiny, as opposed to the unseen worlds above and below it, namelyHeavenandHell.He states that it is "my own mother-earth forplace",but in an imaginary past time, not some other planet.[T 7]He began to use the term "Middle-earth" in the late 1930s, in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands", "Outer Lands", and "Hither Lands".[3]The first published appearance of the word "Middle-earth" in Tolkien's works is in the prologue toThe Lord of the Rings:"Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle-earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them".[T 8]

Extended usage[edit]

Ardaversus "Middle-earth": Middle-earth is in geographic terms the name of the continent inhabited by Elves, Dwarves and Men, excluding the home of theValaronAman,while Arda is the name of the world. However, "Middle-earth" is widely used for the whole ofTolkien's legendarium.[4](Depicted: Arda in theYears of the Trees)

The term Middle-earth has come to be applied as a short-hand for the entirety of Tolkien's legendarium, instead of the technically more appropriate, but lesser known terms "Arda" for the physical world and ""for the physical reality of creation as a whole. In careful geographical terms, Middle-earth is a continent on Arda, excluding regions such as Aman and the isle of Númenor. The alternative wider use is reflected in book titles such asThe Complete Guide to Middle-earth,The Road to Middle-earth,The Atlas of Middle-earth,andChristopher Tolkien's 12-volume seriesThe History of Middle-earth.[4][5]

In other works[edit]

Tolkien's biographerHumphrey Carpenterstates that Tolkien's Middle-earth is the known world, "recalling the NorseMidgardand the equivalent words in early English ", noting that Tolkien made it clear that this was"ourworld... in a purely imaginary... period of antiquity ".[6]Tolkien explained in a letter to his publisher that it "is just a use of Middle Englishmiddle-erde(orerthe), altered from Old EnglishMiddangeard:the name for the inhabited lands of men 'between the seas'. "[T 4]There are allusions to a similarly- or identically-named world in the work of other writers both before and after him.William Morris's 1870 translation of theVolsung Sagacalls the world "Midgard".[7]Margaret Widdemer's 1918 poem "The Gray Magician" contains the lines: "I was living very merrily on Middle Earth / As merry as a maid may be / Till the Gray Magician came down along the road / And flung his cobweb cloak on me..."[8]C. S. Lewis's 1938–1945Space Trilogycalls the home planet "Middle-earth" and specifically references Tolkien's unpublished legendarium; both men were members ofthe Inklingsliterary discussion group.[9]

Geography[edit]

Within the overall context of hislegendarium,Tolkien's Middle-earth was part of his created world of Arda (which includes theUndying Lands of AmanandEressëa,removed from the rest of the physical world), which itself was part of the wider creation he called Eä. Aman and Middle-earth are separated from each other by the Great SeaBelegaer,though they make contact in the far north at the Grinding Ice or Helcaraxë. The western continent, Aman, was the home of theValar,and the Elves called theEldar.[T 9]On the eastern side of Middle-earth was the Eastern Sea. Most of the events in Tolkien's stories take place in the north-west of Middle-earth. In theFirst Age,further to the north-west was the subcontinentBeleriand;it was engulfed by the ocean at the end of the First Age.[5]

Maps[edit]

"A Map of Middle-earth"byPauline Baynes,1970. This map depicts only the north-west of the continent of Middle-earth.[10]

Tolkien preparedseveral mapsof Middle-earth. Some were published in his lifetime. The main maps are those published inThe Hobbit,The Lord of the Rings,The Silmarillion,andUnfinished Tales,and appear as foldouts or illustrations. Tolkien insisted that maps be included in the book for the benefit of readers, despite the expense involved.[T 10]The definitive and iconic map of Middle-earth was published inThe Lord of the Rings.[T 11]It was refined with Tolkien's approval by the illustratorPauline Baynes,using Tolkien's detailed annotations, with vignette images and larger paintings at top and bottom, into a stand-alone poster, "A Map of Middle-earth".[10]

Cosmology[edit]

The Downfall ofNúmenorand the Changing of the World. The intervention of Eru Ilúvatar cataclysmically reshaped Arda into a sphere.[11]

In Tolkien's conception, Arda was created specifically as "the Habitation" (ImbarorAmbar) for theChildren of Ilúvatar(ElvesandMen).[12]It is envisaged in aflat Earthcosmology, with the stars, and later also the sun and moon, revolving around it. Tolkien's sketches show a disc-like face for the world which looked up to the stars. However, Tolkien's legendarium addresses thespherical Earthparadigm by depicting a catastrophic transition from a flat to a spherical world, known as the Akallabeth, in whichAmanbecame inaccessible to mortal Men.[11]

Correspondence with the geography of Earth[edit]

Tolkien described the region in which theHobbitslived as "the North-West of the Old World, east of the Sea",[T 8]and the north-west of theOld Worldis essentiallyEurope,especiallyBritain.However, as he noted in private letters, the geographies do not match, and he did not consciously make them match when he was writing:[T 12]

As for the shape of the world of theThird Age,I am afraid that was devised 'dramatically' rather thangeologically,orpaleontologically.[T 12]

I am historically minded. Middle-earth is not an imaginary world.... The theatre of my tale is this earth, the one in which we now live, but the historical period is imaginary. The essentials of that abiding place are all there (at any rate for inhabitants of N.W. Europe), so naturally it feels familiar, even if a little glorified by enchantment of distance in time.[T 13]

...if it were 'history', it would be difficult to fit the lands and events (or 'cultures') into such evidence as we possess, archaeological or geological, concerning the nearer or remoter part of what is now called Europe; thoughthe Shire,for instance, is expressly stated to have been in this region...I hope the, evidently long but undefined gap in time between the Fall ofBarad-dûrand our Days is sufficient for 'literary credibility', even for readers acquainted with what is known as 'pre-history'. I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother-earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking remote globes in 'space'.[T 7]

In another letter, Tolkien made correspondences inlatitudebetween Europe and Middle-earth:

The action of the story takes place in the North-west of 'Middle-earth', equivalent in latitude to the coastlands of Europe and the north shores of the Mediterranean.... IfHobbitonandRivendellare taken (as intended) to be at about the latitude ofOxford,thenMinas Tirith,600 miles south, is at about the latitude ofFlorence.The Mouths ofAnduinand the ancient city ofPelargirare at about the latitude of ancientTroy.[T 14]

In another letter he stated:

...Thank you very much for your letter.... It came while I was away, in Gondor (sc.Venice), as a change from the North Kingdom, or I would have answered before.[13]

He did confirm, however, thatthe Shire,the land of hisHobbitheroes, was based onEngland,in particular the West Midlands of his childhood.[T 15]In the Prologue toThe Lord of the Rings,Tolkien writes: "Those days, the Third Age of Middle-earth, are now long past, and the shape of all lands has been changed..."[T 16]The Appendices make several references in both history and etymology of topics "now" (in modern English languages) and "then" (ancient languages);

The year no doubt was of the same length,¹ [the footnote here reads:365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds.] for long ago as those times are now reckoned in years and lives of men, they were not very remote according to the memory of the Earth.[T 17]

Both the Appendices andThe Silmarillionmention constellations, stars and planets that correspond to those seen in the northern hemisphere of Earth, including the Sun, the Moon,Orion(and his belt),[T 18]Ursa Major[T 19][T 20]andMars.A map annotated by Tolkien places Hobbiton on the same latitude asOxford,and Minas Tirith at the latitude ofRavenna,Italy. He usedBelgrade,Cyprus,andJerusalemas further reference points.[14]

History[edit]

Tolkien imagined Arda as theEarthin the distant past.[15]With theloss of all its peoplesexcept Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory infolklore,legend,andold words.[16]The outlines of the continents (in the Third Age) are purely schematic.

The history of Middle-earth, as described inThe Silmarillion,began when theAinurentered Arda, following the creation events in theAinulindalëand long ages of labour throughout,thefictional universe.[T 21]Time from that point was measured usingValian Years,though the subsequent history of Arda was divided into three time periods using different years, known as theYears of the Lamps,theYears of the Treesand theYears of the Sun.[T 22]A separate, overlapping chronology divides the history into 'Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar'. The first such Age began with the Awakening of the Elves during the Years of the Trees (by which time the Ainur had already long inhabited Arda) and continued for the first six centuries of the Years of the Sun. All the subsequent Ages took place during the Years of the Sun.[T 23]

Arda is, as critics have noted, "our own green and solid Earth at some quite remote epoch in the past."[15]As such, it has not only an immediate story but a history, and the whole thing is an "imagined prehistory" of the Earth as it is now.[17]

Peoples and their languages[edit]

Ainur[edit]

The Ainur were angelic beings created by the one god of Eä,Eru Ilúvatar.The cosmological myth called theAinulindalë,or "Music of the Ainur", describes how the Ainur sang for Ilúvatar, who then createdto give material form to their music. Many of the Ainur entered Eä, and the greatest of these were called theValar.Melkor,the chief agent of evil in Eä, and later calledMorgoth,was initially one of the Valar. With the Valar came lesser spirits of the Ainur, called theMaiar.Melian, the wife of the Elven King Thingol in theFirst Age,was a Maia. There were also evil Maiar, including theBalrogsand the second Dark Lord,Sauron.Sauron devised theBlack Speech(Burzum) for his slaves (such asOrcs) to speak. In theThird Age,five of the Maiar were embodied and sent to Middle-earth to help the free peoples to overthrow Sauron. These are the Istari orWizards,includingGandalf,Saruman,andRadagast.[T 24]

Elves[edit]

The Elves are known as "the Firstborn" of Ilúvatar: intelligent beings created by Ilúvatar alone,with many different clans. Originally Elves all spoke the sameCommon Eldarinancestral tongue, but over thousands of years it diverged into different languages. The two main Elven languages wereQuenya,spoken by the Light Elves, andSindarin,spoken by the Dark Elves. Physically the Elves resemble humans; indeed, they can marry and have children with them, as shown by the fewHalf-elvenin the legendarium. The Elves are agile and quick footed, being able to walk atightropeunaided. Their eyesight is keen. Elves are immortal, unless killed in battle. They are re-embodied inValinorif killed.[18][19]

Men[edit]

Men were "the Secondborn" of the Children of Ilúvatar: they awoke in Middle-earth much later than the Elves. Men (and Hobbits) were the last humanoid race to appear in Middle-earth: Dwarves, Ents and Orcs also preceded them. The capitalized term "Man" (plural "Men" ) is used as a gender-neutral racial description, to distinguish humans from the other human-like races of Middle-earth. In appearance they are much like Elves, but on average less beautiful. Unlike Elves, Men are mortal, ageing and dying quickly, usually living 40–80 years. However theNúmenóreanscould live several centuries, and their descendants theDúnedainalso tended to live longer than regular humans. This tendency was weakened both by time and by intermingling with lesser peoples.[20]

Dwarves[edit]

The Dwarves are a race of humanoids who are shorter than Men but larger than Hobbits. The Dwarves were created by the Vala Aulë, before the Firstborn awoke due to his impatience for the arrival of the children of Ilúvatar to teach and to cherish. When confronted and shamed for his presumption by Ilúvatar, Eru took pity on Aulë and gave his creation the gift of life but under the condition that they be taken and put to sleep in widely separated locations in Middle Earth and not to awaken until after the Firstborn were upon the Earth. They are mortal like Men, but live much longer, usually several hundred years. A peculiarity of Dwarves is that both males and females are bearded, and thus appear identical to outsiders. The language spoken by Dwarves is calledKhuzdul,and was kept largely as a secret language for their own use. Like Hobbits, Dwarves live exclusively in Middle-earth. They generally reside under mountains, where they are specialists in mining and metalwork.[21]

Hobbits[edit]

Tolkien identified Hobbits as an offshoot of the race of Men. Another name for Hobbit is 'Halfling', as they were generally only half the size of Men. In their lifestyle and habits they closely resemble Men, and in particular Englishmen, except for their preference for living in holes underground. By the time ofThe Hobbit,most of them lived inthe Shire,a region of the northwest of Middle-earth, having migrated there from further east.[22]

Other humanoid peoples[edit]

TheEntswere treelike shepherds of trees, their name coming from an Old English word for giant.[23]OrcsandTrolls(made of stone) were evil creatures bred byMorgoth.They were not original creations but rather "mockeries" of the Children of Ilúvatar and Ents, since only Ilúvatar has the ability to give conscious life to things. The precise origins of Orcs and Trolls are unclear, as Tolkien considered various possibilities and sometimes changed his mind, leaving several inconsistent accounts.[24]Late in the Third Age, the Uruks orUruk-haiappeared: a race of Orcs of great size and strength that tolerate sunlight better than ordinary Orcs.[T 25]Tolkien also mentions "Men-orcs" and "Orc-men"; or "half-orcs" or "goblin-men". They share some characteristics with Orcs (like "slanty eyes" ) but look more like men.[T 26]Tolkien, aCatholic,realised he had createda dilemma for himself,as if these beings were sentient and had a sense of right and wrong, then they must have souls and could not have been created wholly evil.[25][26]

Dragons[edit]

Dragons (or "worms" ) appear in several varieties, distinguished by whether they have wings and whether they breathe fire (cold-drakes versus fire-drakes). The first of the fire-drakes (Urulókiin Quenya)[T 27]was Glaurung the Golden, bred byMorgothinAngband,and called "The Great Worm", "The Worm of Morgoth", and "The Father of Dragons".[T 28]

Sapient animals[edit]

Middle-earth containssapientanimals including theEagles,[T 29]Huanthe Great Hound fromValinorand the wolf-likeWargs.[27]In general the origins and nature of these animals are unclear. Giant spiders such asShelobdescended fromUngoliant,of unknown origin.[T 30]Other sapient species include the Crebain, evil crows who become spies forSaruman,and the Ravens ofErebor,who brought news to the Dwarves. The horse-line of the Mearas of Rohan, especially Gandalf's mount, Shadowfax, also appear to be intelligent and understand human speech. The bear-manBeornhad a number of animal friends about his house.[28]

Adaptations[edit]

Motion pictures[edit]

The HobbitandThe Lord of the Rings,both set in Middle-earth, have been the subject of a variety of film adaptations. There were many early failed attempts to bring the fictional universe to life on screen, some even rejected by the author himself, who was skeptical of the prospects of an adaptation. While animated andlive-action shortswere made of Tolkien's books in 1967 and 1971, the first commercial depiction ofThe Hobbitonscreen was theRankin/Bassanimated TV special in 1977.[29]In 1978 the first big screen adaptation of the fictional setting was introduced inRalph Bakshi's animatedThe Lord of the Rings.[30]

New Line Cinemareleased the first part of directorPeter Jackson'sThe Lord of the Ringsfilm seriesin 2001 as part of a trilogy; it was followed by a prequel trilogy inThe Hobbitfilm serieswith several of the same actors playing their old roles.[31]In 2003,The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the Kingreceived 11Academy Awardnominations and won all of them, matching the totals awarded toBen-HurandTitanic.[32]

Two well-madefan filmsof Middle-earth,The Hunt for GollumandBorn of Hope,were uploaded to YouTube on 8 May 2009 and 11 December 2009 respectively.[33][34]

Games[edit]

Numerous computer and video games have been inspired byJ. R. R. Tolkien's works set in Middle-earth. Titles have been produced by studios such asElectronic Arts,Vivendi Games,Melbourne House,andWarner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.[35][36]Aside from officially licensed games, many Tolkien-inspiredmods,custom maps and total conversions have been made for many games, such asWarcraft III,Minecraft,[37]Rome: Total War,Medieval II: Total War,The Elder Scrolls IV: OblivionandThe Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. In addition, there are many text-basedMMORPGs(known asMU*s) based on Middle-earth. The oldest of these dates back to 1991, and was known as Middle-earthMUD,run by usingLPMUD.[38]After the Middle-earth MUD ended in 1992, it was followed byElendor[39]andMUME.[40]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Primary[edit]

  1. ^Carpenter 2023,#211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958, last footnote
  2. ^Tolkien 1977,Ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor"
  3. ^abcTolkien 1977,"Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age"
  4. ^abCarpenter 2023,#165 to the Houghton Mifflin Co., 30 June 1955
  5. ^abCarpenter 2023,#297 draft for a letter to a 'Mr Rang', August 1967
  6. ^Carpenter 2023,#151 to Hugh Brogan, 18 September 1954; #183, Notes onW. H. Auden's review ofThe Return of the King,1956; and #283 to Benjamin P. Indick, 7 January 1966
  7. ^abCarpenter 2023,#211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958
  8. ^abTolkien 1954a,"Prologue"
  9. ^Tolkien 1977,ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor"
  10. ^Carpenter 2023,#137 toRayner Unwin,11 April 1953; #139 toRayner Unwin,8 August 1953; #141 to Allen & Unwin, 9 October 1953; #144 toNaomi Mitchison,25 April 1954; #160 to Rayner Unwin, 6 March 1955; #161 to Rayner Unwin, 18 April 1955
  11. ^Tolkien 1954,foldout map in first edition
  12. ^abCarpenter 2023,#169 to Hugh Brogan, 11 September 1955
  13. ^Carpenter 2023,#183 notes on W. H. Auden's review ofThe Return of the King,1956
  14. ^Carpenter 2023,#294 to Charlotte and Denis Plimmer, 8 February 1967
  15. ^Carpenter 2023,#190 toRayner Unwin,3 July 1956
  16. ^Tolkien 1954a,"Prologue"
  17. ^Tolkien 1955,Appendix D, "Calendars"
  18. ^Tolkien 1977,p. 44 "Menelmacar with his shining belt"
  19. ^Tolkien 1977,p. 45 "And high in the north as a challenge toMelkorshe set the crown of seven mighty stars to swing,Valacirca,the Sickle of the Valar... "
  20. ^Tolkien 1954a,book 1, ch. 8 "Strider" "The Sickle [The Hobbits' name for the Plough or Great Bear] was swinging bright above the shoulders of Bree-hill."
  21. ^Tolkien 1977,"Ainulindalë"
  22. ^Tolkien 1977,ch. 1 "Of the Beginning of Days"
  23. ^Tolkien 1977,ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor"
  24. ^Tolkien 1980,p. 388
  25. ^Tolkien 1954,Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-Hai"
  26. ^Tolkien 1955,book 6 ch. 8 "The Scouring of the Shire"
  27. ^Tolkien 1977,index entryUrulóki
  28. ^Tolkien 1977,ch. 24 "Of the Voyage of Eärendil"
  29. ^Tolkien 1954a,"The Council of Elrond"
  30. ^Tolkien 1954,book 4, chapter 9: "Shelob's Lair."

Secondary[edit]

  1. ^abChristopher, Joe R. (2012)."The Journeys To and From Purgatory Island: A Dantean Allusion at the End of C. S. Lewis's 'The Nameless Isle'".In Khoddam, Salwa; Hall, Mark R.;Fisher, Jason(eds.).C. S. Lewis and the Inklings: Discovering Hidden Truth.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.p. 206.ISBN978-1-4438-4431-4.
  2. ^Harper, Douglas."Midgard".Online Etymological Dictionary; etymonline.Retrieved12 March2010.
  3. ^abGilliver, Peter;Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2006).The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary(1st ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 164.ISBN978-0-19-861069-4.
  4. ^abBratman, David(2013) [2007]. "History of Middle-earth: Overview". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 273–274.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
  5. ^abHarvey, Greg (2011).The Origins of Tolkien's Middle-earth For Dummies.John Wiley & Sons.Chapter 1: The Worlds of Middle-earth.ISBN978-1-118-06898-4.
  6. ^Carpenter 1977,p. 98.
  7. ^Morris, William(2015).Delphi Complete Works of William Morris (Illustrated).Delphi Classics. p. 5104.ISBN978-1-910630-92-1.
  8. ^"The Old Road to Paradise by Margaret Widdemer".
  9. ^Ford, G. L. (17 January 2020)."Christopher Tolkien, 1924-2020 Keeper of Middle-earth's Legacy".Book and Film Globe.Retrieved26 July2020.Lewis's Space Trilogy drew on Tolkien's Middle-earth lore at several points, where he used it to deepen the mythology underlying his action.
  10. ^abHammond, Wayne G.;Anderson, Douglas A.(1993).J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography.St. Paul's Bibliographies. p. 376.ISBN978-1-873040-11-9.
  11. ^abShippey 2005,pp. 324–328.
  12. ^Bolintineanu, Alexandra (2013). "Arda". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 24–25.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
  13. ^Carpenter 2023,#168 to Richard Jeffery, 7 September 1966
  14. ^Flood, Alison (23 October 2015)."Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings".The Guardian.
  15. ^abKocher, Paul(1974) [1972].Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien.Penguin Books.pp. 8–11.ISBN0140038779.
  16. ^Lee, Stuart D.;Solopova, Elizabeth(2005).The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien.Palgrave.pp. 256–257.ISBN978-1403946713.
  17. ^West, Richard C.(2006). "'And All the Days of Her Life Are Forgotten': 'The Lord of the Rings' as Mythic Prehistory ". InHammond, Wayne G.;Scull, Christina(eds.).The Lord of the Rings, 1954-2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder.Marquette University Press.pp. 67–100.ISBN978-0-87462-018-4.OCLC298788493.
  18. ^Eden, Bradford Lee(2013) [2007]. "Elves". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 150–152.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
  19. ^Dickerson, Matthew(2013) [2007]. "Elves: Kindreds and Migrations". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 152–154.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
  20. ^Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif(2013) [2007]. "Men, Middle-earth". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 414–417.ISBN978-1-135-88034-7.
  21. ^Evans, Jonathan(2013) [2007]. "Dwarves". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 134–135.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
  22. ^Stanton, Michael N. (2013) [2007]. "Hobbits". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 280–282.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.
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  24. ^Shippey 2005,p. 159.
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  27. ^Evans, Jonathan. "Monsters". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment.p. 433.
  28. ^Burns, Marjorie(2013) [2007]. "Old Norse Literature". InDrout, Michael D. C.(ed.).J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia.Routledge.pp. 473–474.ISBN978-0-415-86511-1.Echoes of these Norse battle animals appear throughout Tolkien's literature; in one way or another, all are associated with Gandalf or his cause.... raven... Eagles... wolves... horses... Saruman is the one most closely associated with Odin's ravaging wolves and carrion birds
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Further reading[edit]