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This article is about the historical/archaeological period known as the Iron Age. For the mythological Iron Age, seeAges of Man.

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TheIron Ageis the final epoch of the three historicalMetal Ages,after theChalcolithicandBronze Age.[1]It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting withprehistory(before recorded history) and progressing toprotohistory(before written history). In this usage, it is preceded by theStone Age(subdivided into thePaleolithic,MesolithicandNeolithic) and Bronze Age. These concepts originated for describingIron Age Europeand theAncient Near East.The indigenous cultures of theNew Worlddid not develop an iron economybefore 1500.

Althoughmeteoric ironhas been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smeltediron(especiallysteeltools and weapons) replaces theirbronzeequivalents in common use.[2]

InAnatoliaand theCaucasus,orSoutheast Europe,the Iron Age began during the late2nd millennium BC(c.1300 BC).[3]In theAncient Near East,this transition occurred simultaneously with theLate Bronze Age collapse,during the12th century BC(1200–1100 BC). The technology soon spread throughout theMediterranean Basinregion and toSouth Asiabetween the 12th and 11th century BC. Its further spread toCentral Asia,Eastern Europe,andCentral Europewas somewhat delayed, andNorthern Europewas not reached until about the start of the5th century BC(500 BC).

TheIron Age in Indiais stated as beginning with the ironworkingPainted Grey Ware culture,dating from the15th century BC,through to the reign ofAshokain the3rd century BC.The term "Iron Age" in the archaeology of South, East, and Southeast Asia is more recent and less common than for Western Eurasia. Africa did not have a universal "Bronze Age", and many areas transitioned directly from stone to iron. Some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed in sub-Saharan Africa independently from Eurasia and neighbouring parts of Northeast Africa as early as2000 BC.[4][5][6]

The concept of the Iron Age ending with the beginning of the writtenhistoriographical recordhas not generalized well, as written language and steel use have developed at different times in different areas across the archaeological record. For instance, in China,written historystarted before iron smelting began, so the term is used infrequently for the archaeology of China. For the Ancient Near East, the establishment of theAchaemenid Empirec. 550 BCis used traditionally and still usually as an end date; later dates are considered historical according to the record byHerodotusdespite considerable written records now being known from well back into the Bronze Age. In Central and Western Europe, theRoman conquestsof the 1st century BC serve as marking the end of the Iron Age. TheGermanic Iron Ageof Scandinavia is considered to endc. AD 800,with the beginning of theViking Age.

History of the concept

[edit]
Map showing the extent of the Chernoles culture in Eastern Europe during the late Bronze Age.

The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by the latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological "Ages of Man"ofHesiod.As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia byChristian Jürgensen Thomsenduring the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general[7]and began to be applied inAssyriology.The development of the now-conventionalperiodizationin the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s.[8]

Definition of "iron"

[edit]
Main articles:Ferrous metallurgy § Iron smelting and the Iron Age,andArchaeometallurgical slag
Willamette Meteorite,the sixth largest in the world, is aniron–nickel meteorite.

Meteoric iron, a naturaliron–nickel alloy,was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. The earliest-known meteoric iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to3200 BC,which were found in burialsat Gerzeh in Lower Egypt,having been shaped by careful hammering.[9][10][11]

The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but fromsmelted steel alloyswith an addedcarboncontent.[citation needed]Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel doesferrous metallurgyresult in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter thanbronze.[citation needed]

Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middleBronze Age.Whilst terrestrial iron is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with the technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within the capabilities of Neolithickilns,which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F).[12]

In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel has also been regulated by the economics of the metallurgical advancements.

Chronology

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Bronze AgeStone Age

Earliest evidence

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The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers atKaman-Kalehöyükin modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, andarchaeometallurgicalexamination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia ".[13]Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC).[14]

Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in theGangesValley in India have been dated tentatively to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC".[15]By theMiddle Bronze Ageincreasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack ofnickelin the product) appeared in theMiddle East,Southeast AsiaandSouth Asia.

African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC.[16][17][18][6]However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BC, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000 BC. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BC, while the nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BC. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BC. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa.[citation needed]

Beginning

[edit]
Copy of TheWarrior of Hirschlanden(German:Krieger von Hirschlanden), astatueof a nudeithyphallicwarrior made ofsandstone,the oldest known Iron Age life-size anthropomorphic statue north of theAlps.

Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking the end of theBronze Age.The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of theBronze Age collapsein theancient Near East.

Anthony Snodgrass[19][20]suggests that a shortage of tin and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean about 1300 BC forcedmetalworkersto seek an alternative to bronze. Many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time, and more widespread use of iron resulted in improved steel-making technology and lower costs. When tin became readily available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently.[21]

InCentraland Western Europe, the Iron Age lasted fromc. 800 BCtoc. 1 BC,beginning inpre-Roman Iron AgeNorthern Europe inc. 600 BC,and reachingNorthern ScandinavianEurope aboutc. 500 BC.

The Iron Age in theAncient Near Eastis considered to last fromc. 1200 BC(theBronze Age collapse) toc. 550 BC(or539 BC), roughly the beginning ofhistoriographywithHerodotus,marking the end of theproto-historicalperiod.

InChina,because writing was developed first, there is no recognizable prehistoric period characterized by ironworking, and theBronze Age Chinatransitions almost directly into theQin dynastyof imperial China."Iron Age"in the context of China is used sometimes for the transitional period ofc. 900 BCto 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant.

Maurya EmpireNorthern Black Polished WarePainted Gray WareViking AgeGermanic Iron AgeRoman Iron AgePre-Roman Iron AgeRoman ItalyEtruscan civilizationVillanovan cultureLate Period of ancient EgyptThird Intermediate Period of EgyptRoman EmpireLa Tène cultureHallstatt cultureClassical GreeceArchaic GreeceGreek Dark AgesAchaemenid Empire

Ancient Near East

[edit]

The Iron Age in theAncient Near Eastis believed to have begun after the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques inAnatolia,theCaucasusorSoutheast Europeduring the late2nd millennium BC(c.1300 BC).[3]The earliestbloomerysmelting of iron is found atTell Hammeh,Jordan about 930 BC (determined from14C dating).

The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of the Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period.[22]

In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC.[23]For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period isTeppe Hasanlu.

West Asia

[edit]

In theMesopotamianstates ofSumer,AkkadandAssyria,the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC.[24]One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known is a dagger with an iron blade found in aHattictomb inAnatolia,dating from 2500 BC.[25]The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout theNear East(North Africa, southwestAsia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.

The development of iron smelting was once attributed to theHittitesof Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, theBronze Age collapsesaw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long believed that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time.[26]Accordingly, the invadingSea Peopleswould have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The idea of such a "Hittite monopoly" has been examined more thoroughly and no longer represents a scholarly consensus.[26]While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.[27]

Early examples and distribution of non-precious metal finds[28][self-published source]
Date Crete Aegean Greece Cyprus Sub-totals Anatolia Totals
1300–1200 BC 5 2 9 0 16 33 49
Total Bronze Age 5 2 9 0 16 33 49
1200–1100 BC 1 2 8 26 37 N/A 37
1100–1000 BC 13 3 31 33 80 N/A 80
1000–900 BC 37+ 30 115 29 211 N/A 211
Total Iron Age
[Columns don't sum precisely] 		51 35 163 88 328 N/A 328
Sassanid EmpireParthian EmpireSeleucid EmpireAchaemenid EmpireRamesside PeriodAncient Near East

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

  • Prehistoric (orProto-historic) Iron AgeHistoric Iron Age

Egypt

[edit]
Main article:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by theNeo-Assyrian Empirein 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to be that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa.[24]In theBlack Pyramid of Abusir,dating before 2000 BC,Gaston Masperofound some pieces of iron. In the funeral text ofPepi I,the metal is mentioned.[24]A sword bearing the name of pharaohMerneptahas well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit.[25]Adagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb,13th century BC, was examined recently and found to be of meteoric origin.[29][30][31]

Europe

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Main article:Iron Age Europe
Maiden Castle,Dorset, England. More than 2,000 Iron Agehillfortsare known in Britain.

In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage ofprehistoric Europeand the first of theprotohistoricperiods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during theMigration Period.

Iron workingwas introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC,[32]probably from theCaucasus,and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons.[33]It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age ofPrehistoric Irelandbegins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.[34]The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe is divided into two periods based on theHallstatt culture(early Iron Age) andLa Tène(late Iron Age) cultures.[35]Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D).[36][37][38]

Culture Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D
Hallstatt 1200–700 BC
Flat graves 		1200–700 BC
Pottery made of polychrome 		700–600 BC
Heavy iron and bronze swords 		600–475 BC
Dagger swords, brooches, and ring ornaments, girdle mounts
La Tène 450–390 BC
S-shaped, spiral and round designs 		390–300 BC
Iron swords, heavy knives, lanceheads 		300–100 BC
Iron chains, iron swords, belts, heavy spearheads 		100–15 BC
Iron reaping-hooks, saws, scythes and hammers
A sword of the Iron Age Cogotas II culture in Spain.

The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils.[24]These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.[39]

Citânia de Briteiros,located inGuimarães,Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as a Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number ofamphoras(containers usually for wine or olive oil), coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and itspedra formosa(lit. 'handsome stone') revealed here.[40][41]

Asia

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Central Asia

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The Iron Age inCentral Asiabegan when iron objects appear among theIndo-EuropeanSakain present-dayXin gian g(China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou.[42]

ThePazyryk cultureis an Iron Agearchaeological culture(c. 6thto 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in theSiberianpermafrostin theAltay Mountains.

East Asia

[edit]
Further information:History of metallurgy in China § Iron
Three Kingdoms of KoreaProto–Three Kingdoms of KoreaGojoseonKofun periodYayoi periodEarly Imperial ChinaImperial ChinaIron Age ChinaWarring States periodSpring and Autumn Period

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

  • Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron AgeHistoric Iron Age

In China,Chinese bronze inscriptionsare found around 1200 BC, preceding the development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC.[43][44]Thelarge seal scriptis identified with a group of characters from a book entitledShǐ Zhòu Piān(c.800 BC). Therefore, in Chinaprehistoryhad given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so "Iron Age" is not used typically to describe a period of Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached theYangtse Valleytoward the end of the 6th century BC.[45]The few objects were found atChangshaandNanjing.The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron inLingnanbelongs to the mid-to-lateWarring Statesperiod (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC.[46]

The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from theZhongyuan.The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast.

An Iron Age culture of theTibetan Plateauhas been associated tentatively with theZhang Zhung culturedescribed by early Tibetan writings.

In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during the lateYayoi period(c.300 BC – 300 AD)[47]or the succeedingKofun period(c.250–538 AD), most likely from the Korean Peninsula and China.

Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southernKyūshūto northernHonshū.The Kofun and the subsequentAsuka periodsare sometimes referred to collectively as theYamato period;The wordkofunis Japanese for the type ofburial moundsdating from that era.

Sillachest and neck armour from theNational Museum of KoreainSeoul(3rd century AD).

Iron objects were introduced to theKorean peninsulathrough trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in theYellow Seaarea during the 4th century BC, just at the end of theWarring States Periodbut prior to the beginning of theWestern Han dynasty.[48][49]Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers.[50]Iron production quickly followed during the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea.[48]The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in theGeum Riverbasin.The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms ofProto-historic Koreaemerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such asSilla,Baekje,Goguryeo,andGaya[49][51]Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased during this period.[52]

South Asia

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Main article:Iron Age in India
Maurya EmpireNanda EmpireShaishunaga dynastyHaryanka dynastyPradyota dynastyBrihadratha dynastyMahajanapadasJanapadaIron Age in IndiaMagadha

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

  • Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron AgeHistoric Iron Age

The earliest evidence ofiron smeltingpredates the emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries.[53]Iron was being used inMundigakto manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button.[54]Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state ofTelanganawhich have been dated between 2400 BC and 1800 BC.[55][56]Thehistory of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinentbegan prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa,KosambiandJhusi,Allahabadin present-dayUttar Pradeshshow iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC.[15]As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c. 1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting is fromMalharand its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc., by at least c. 1500 BC.[57]Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site.[58]

The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre inEast Indiahas been dated to the first millennium BC.[59]InSouthern India(present-dayMysore) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[59]The IndianUpanishadsmention metallurgy.[60]and the IndianMauryanperiod saw advances in metallurgy.[61]As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called thecrucible technique.In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[62]

The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected fromAnuradhapuraand Aligala shelter inSigiriya.[63][64][65][66]The Anuradhapura settlement is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700–600 BC to become a town.[67]The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai,Jaffna.The name "Ko Veta" is engraved inBrahmi scripton asealburied with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporaryBrahmiinscriptions in south India.[68]It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist inKandarodai,Matota,PilapitiyaandTissamaharama.[64]

The earliest undisputed decipheredepigraphyfound in theIndian subcontinentare theEdicts of Ashokaof the 3rd century BC, in theBrahmi script.Several inscriptions were thought to be pre-Ashokan by earlier scholars; these include thePiprahwarelic casket inscription, theBadli pillar inscription,theBhattiprolurelic casket inscription, theSohgaura copper plate inscription,theMahasthangarhBrahmi inscription, theErancoin legend, theTaxilacoin legends, and the inscription on the silver coins ofSophytes.However, more recent scholars have dated them to later periods.[69]

Southeast Asia

[edit]
TarumanagaraBuni culturePrehistory of IndonesiaHistory of the Philippines (900-1521)History of the PhilippinesIgorot societySa Huỳnh cultureImperial VietnamÓc Eo cultureSa Huỳnh culture

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.

Lingling-o earrings fromLuzon,Philippines

Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age.[70]

InPhilippinesandVietnam,theSa Huynh cultureshowed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, as well as theOrchid Island.[71]: 211–217 

Africa

[edit]
Main article:Iron metallurgy in Africa
See also:Nok culture,Urewe,andBantu expansion
Examples of African bloomery furnace types

Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such asKM2 and KM3in northwestTanzaniaand parts of Nigeria and the Central African Republic.Nubiawas one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along withEgyptand much of the rest ofNorth Africa.

Archaeometallurgicalscientific knowledge and technological developmentoriginated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located inWest Africa,Central Africa,andEast Africa;consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.[72]Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631–2458 BC at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136–1921 BC at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895–1370 BC at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297–1051 BC at Dekpassanware, in Togo.[72]

Very early copper and bronze working sites inNigermay date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit,Nigerfrom around this period.[16][73]Nubiawas a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of theNubian dynastyfrom Egypt by theAssyriansin the 7th century BC.[74]

Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa, separately from Eurasia and neighboring parts of North and Northeast Africa.[4][5]

Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in theNsukkaregion of southeastNigeriain what is nowIgboland:dating to 2000 BC at the site ofLejja(Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[6][5]and to 750 BC and at the site ofOpi(Holl 2009).[5]The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC, respectively.[75]Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in theNok cultureof central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.[76][77][4][75]

Iron and copper working inSub-Saharan Africaspread south and east from Central Africa in conjunction with theBantu expansion,from the Cameroon region to theAfrican Great Lakesin the 3rd century BC, reaching theCapearound 400 AD.[16] However, iron working may have been practiced in central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC.[78]Instances ofcarbon steelbased on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century CE in northwestTanzania.[79]

Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing
Bantu expansionNok cultureSub-Saharan AfricaAfrican Iron AgeAksumite EmpireKingdom of KushThird Intermediate Period

Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details

  • Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron AgeHistoric Iron Age


See also

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References

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  1. ^The Metal Agesat theEncyclopædia Britannica
  2. ^Milisauskas, Sarunas, ed. (2002).European Prehistory: A Survey.Springer.ISBN978-0306467936.Archived fromthe originalon 23 November 2022.
  3. ^abWaldbaum, Jane C. (1978)."From bronze to iron: the transition from the bronze age to the iron age in the Eastern Mediterranean".Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology.Astroem.
  4. ^abcEggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context.Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna. pp. 51–59.
  5. ^abcdHoll, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".Journal of World Prehistory.22(4): 415–438.doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6.S2CID161611760.
  6. ^abcEze–Uzomaka, Pamela."Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja".Academia.University of Nigeria, Nsukka.Retrieved12 December2014.
  7. ^von Rotteck, K.; Welcker, K.T. (1864).Das Staats-Lexikon: Bd.Das Staats-Lexikon: Enzyklopädie der sämmtlichen Staatswissenschaften für alle Stände: in Verbindung mit vielen der angesehensten Publicisten Deutschlands (in German). F. A. Brockhaus. p. 774.Retrieved19 July2024.
  8. ^Oriental Institute Communications,Issues 13–19, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1922, p. 55.
  9. ^Rehren, Thilo; Belgya, Tamás; Jambon, Albert; Káli, György; Kasztovszky, Zsolt; Kis, Zoltán; Kovács, Imre; Maróti, Boglárka; Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Miniaci, Gianluca; Pigott, Vincent C.; Radivojević, Miljana; Rosta, László; Szentmiklósi, László; Szőkefalvi-Nagy, Zoltán (2013)."5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron"(PDF).Journal of Archaeological Science.40(12): 4785–4792.Bibcode:2013JArSc..40.4785R.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002.
  10. ^Rapp, G.R. (2002).Archaeomineralogy.Natural Science in Archaeology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 164.ISBN978-3-540-42579-3.
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Further reading

[edit]
Library resourcesabout
Iron Age
  • Bakker, Jan David; Maurer, Stephan;Pischke, Jörn-Steffen;Rauch, Ferdinand (16 August 2021). "Of Mice and Merchants: Connectedness and the Location of Economic Activity in the Iron Age".The Review of Economics and Statistics.MIT Press - Journals: 1–14.doi:10.1162/rest_a_00902.ISSN0034-6535.
  • Chang, Claudia (16 August 2017).Rethinking Prehistoric Central Asia: Shepherds, Farmers, and Nomads.Routledge.doi:10.4324/9781315173696.ISBN978-1-315-17369-6.
  • Collis, John (1984).The European Iron Age.London: B.T. Batsford.ISBN978-0-7134-3452-1.
  • Cunliffe, B.W. (2004).Iron Age Britain.English Heritage (Rev. ed.). B.T. Batsford.ISBN978-0-00-704186-2.
  • Davis-Kimball, J.;Bashilov, V.A.; Tiablonskiĭ, L.T. (1995).Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age.Zinat Press.ISBN978-1-885979-00-1.
  • Finkelstein, Israel; Piasetzky, Eli (2011). "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing?".Near Eastern Archaeology.74(1): 50–54.doi:10.5615/neareastarch.74.1.0050.ISSN1094-2076.
  • Jacobson, E. (1987).Burial Ritual, Gender, and Status in South Siberia in the Late Bronze-early Iron Age.Papers on inner Asia. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies.
  • Mazar, Amihai (1997). "Iron Age Chronology: A Reply to I. Finkelstein".Levant.29(1): 157–167.doi:10.1179/lev.1997.29.1.157.ISSN0075-8914.
  • Mazar, Amihai (2011). "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint".Near Eastern Archaeology.74(2): 105–111.doi:10.5615/neareastarch.74.2.0105.ISSN1094-2076.
  • Medvedskaya, I.N. (1982).Iran: Iron Age I.BAR international series. B.A.R.ISBN978-0-86054-156-1.
  • Shinnie, P.L. (1971).The African Iron Age.Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-813158-8.
  • Tripathi, V. (2001).The Age of Iron in South Asia: Legacy and Tradition.Aryan Books International.
  • Tylecote, R.F. (1975).A History of Metallurgy.Great Britain: Institute of Materials.
  • Waldbaum, J.C. (1978).From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean.Vol. 54–55. P. Aström.ISBN978-91-85058-79-2.
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