Militarism

Not to be confused withMilitarization,Millerism,orMillenarism.

Prussian(and later German) ChancellorOtto von Bismarck,right, with GeneralHelmuth von Moltke the Elder,left, and GeneralAlbrecht von Roon,centre. Although Bismarck was a civilian politician and not a military officer, he wore a military uniform as part of the Prussian militarist culture of the time. From a painting byCarl Steffeck.

Militarismis the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strongmilitarycapability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values.It may also imply the glorification of the military and of the ideals of a professional military class and the "predominance of thearmed forcesin the administration or policy of the state "(see also:stratocracyandmilitary junta).

Militarism has been a significant element of theimperialistorexpansionistideologies of many nations throughout history. Notable ancient examples include theAssyrian Empire,the Greek city state ofSparta,theRoman Empire,theAztecnation, and theMongol Empire.Examples from modern times include theOttoman Empire,theKingdom of Prussia/German Empire/Third Reich,theBritish Empire,theHabsburgmonarchy, theUnited States of America,theFirst French Empire,theZulu Kingdom,theEmpire of Japan,theItalian EmpireunderBenito Mussolini,Israel,North Koreaand theRussian Empire/Soviet Union/Russia.

By nation

Germany

Main article:German militarism

See also:List of wars involving GermanyandMilitary history of Germany

Otto von Bismarck,a civilian, wearing acuirassierofficer's metalPickelhaube

The roots of German militarism can be found in 18th- and 19th-centuryPrussiaand the subsequent unification ofGermanyunder Prussian leadership. However,Hans Rosenbergsees its origin already in theTeutonic Orderand its colonization of Prussia during the late Middle Ages, when mercenaries from the Holy Roman Empire were granted lands by the Order and gradually formed a new landed militarist Prussian nobility, from which theJunkernobility would later evolve.

During the 17th-century reign of the "Great Elector"Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg,Brandenburg-Prussia increased its military to 40,000 men and began an effective military administration overseen by theGeneral War Commissariat.In order to bolster his power both in interior and foreign matters, so-calledSoldatenkönig( "soldier king" )Frederick William I of Prussiastarted his large-scale military reforms in 1713, thus beginning the country's tradition of a high military budget by increasing the annual military spending to 73% of the entire annual budget of Prussia. By the time of his death in 1740, thePrussian Armyhad grown into astanding armyof 83,000 men, one of the largest in Europe, at a time when the entire Prussian populace made up 2.5 million people. Prussian military writerGeorg Henirich von Berenhorstwould later write in hindsight that ever since the reign of thesoldier king,Prussia always remained "not a country with an army, but an army with a country" (a quote often misattributed toVoltaireandHonoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau).

AfterNapoleon Bonapartedefeated Prussia in 1806, one of the conditions of peace was that Prussia should reduce its army to no more than 42,000 men. In order that the country should not again be so defeated, theKing of Prussiaenrolled the permitted number of men for one year, trained and then dismissed that group, and enrolled another of the same size, and so on. Thus, in the course of ten years, he was able to gather an army of 420,000 men who had at least one year of military training. The officers of the army were drawn almost entirely from among the land-owningnobility.The result was that there was gradually built up a large class of professional officers on the one hand, and a much larger class, the rank and file of the army, on the other. These enlisted men had become conditioned to obey implicitly all the commands of the officers, creating aclass-based culture ofdeference.

This system led to several consequences. Since the officer class also furnished most of the officials for the civil administration of the country, the interests of the army came to be considered as identical to the interests of the country as a whole. A second result was that the governing class desired to continue a system which gave them so much power over the common people, contributing to the continuing influence of theJunkernoble classes.

Militarism inNazi Germany

Militarism in Germany continued after World War I and the fall of the German monarchy in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919,in spite of Allied attempts to crush German militarism by means of theTreaty of Versailles,as the Allies saw Prussian and German militarism as one of the major causes of the Great War. During the period of theWeimar Republic(1918–1933), the 1920Kapp Putsch,an attemptedcoup d'étatagainst the republican government, was launched by disaffected members of the armed forces. After this event, some of the more radical militarists and nationalists were submerged in grief and despair into theNSDAPparty ofAdolf Hitler,while more moderate elements of militarism declined and remained affiliated with theGerman National People's Party(DNVP) instead.

Throughout its entire 14-year existence, the Weimar Republic remained under threat of militaristic nationalism, as many Germans felt theTreaty of Versailleshumiliated their militaristic culture. The Weimar years saw large-scale right-wing militarist and paramilitary mass organizations such asDer Stahlhelmas well as militias such as theFreikorps,which was banned in 1921.In the same year, theReichswehrset up theBlack Reichswehr,a secret reserve of trained soldiers networked within its units organised as "labour battalions" (Arbeitskommandos) to circumvent the Treaty of Versailles' 100,000 man limit on the German army.;it was dissolved in 1923. Many members of theFreikorpsand the Black Reichswehr went on to join theSturmabteilung(SA), the paramilitary branch of the Nazi party. All of these were responsible for the political violence of so-calledFememurdersand an overall atmosphere of lingering civil war during the Weimar period. During the Weimar era, mathematician and political writerEmil Julius Gumbelpublished in-depth analyses of the militarist paramilitary violence characterizing German public life as well as the state's lenient to sympathetic reaction to it if the violence was committed by the political right.

Nazi Germanywas a strongly militarist state; after its defeat in 1945, militarism in German culture was dramatically reduced as a backlash against the Nazi period, and theAllied Control Counciland later theAllied High Commissionoversaw a program of attempted fundamental re-education of the German people at large in order to put a stop to German militarism once and for all.

TheFederal Republic of Germanytoday maintains alarge, modern militaryand has one of thehighest defence budgetsin the world; at 1.3 percent of Germany's GDP, it is, in 2019, similar in cash terms to those of the United Kingdom, France and Japan, at around US$50bn.

India

Military parade in India

The rise of militarism in India dates back to theBritish Rajwith the establishment of severalIndian independence movementorganizations such as theIndian National Armyled bySubhas Chandra Bose.The Indian National Army (INA) played a crucial role in pressuring the British Raj after it occupied theAndaman and Nicobar Islandswith the help ofImperial Japan,but the movement lost momentum due to lack of support by theIndian National Congress,theBattle of Imphal,and Bose's sudden death.

After India gainedindependence in 1947,tensions with neighbouring Pakistanover theKashmir disputeand other issues led the Indian government to emphasize military preparedness (see also thepolitical integration of India). After theSino-Indian Warin 1962, India dramatically expanded its military which helped India win theIndo-Pakistani War of 1971.India became the third Asian country in the world to possessnuclear weapons,culminating in thetests of 1998.TheKashmiri insurgencyand recent events including theKargil Waragainst Pakistan, assured that the Indian government remained committed to military expansion. The disputedJammu and Kashmirregion is regarded as one of the world’s most militarized places.

In recent years, the Indian government has increased the military expenditure of the 1.4 million-strong military across all branches and embarked on a rapid modernization program.

Japan

Main article:Japanese militarism

Japanese march intoZhengyangmenofBeijingafter capturing the city in July 1937

In parallel with 20th-century German militarism, Japanese militarism began with a series of events by which the military gained prominence in dictating Japan's affairs. This was evident in 15th-century Japan'sSengokuperiod orAge of Warring States,where powerfulsamuraiwarlords (daimyōs) played a significant role in Japanese politics. Japan's militarism is deeply rooted in the ancient samurai tradition, centuries before Japan's modernization. Even though a militarist philosophy was intrinsic to the shogunates, anationaliststyle of militarism developed after theMeiji Restoration,which restored theEmperorto power and began theEmpire of Japan.It is exemplified by the 1882Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors,which called for all members of the armed forces to have an absolute personal loyalty to the Emperor.

In the 20th century (approximately in the 1920s), two factors contributed both to the power of the military and chaos within its ranks. One was the "Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law", which required theImperial Japanese Army(IJA) andImperial Japanese Navy(IJN) to agree to theMinistry of Armyposition in theCabinet.This essentially gave the military veto power over the formation of any Cabinet in the ostensibly parliamentary country. Another factor wasgekokujō,or institutionalizeddisobedienceby junior officers.It was not uncommon for radical junior officers to press their goals, to the extent of assassinating their seniors. In 1936, this phenomenon resulted in theFebruary 26 Incident,in which junior officers attempted acoup d'étatand killed leading members of the Japanese government. The rebellion enraged EmperorHirohitoand he ordered its suppression, which was successfully carried out by loyal members of the military.

Elementary school students were given military drills, May 1942.

In the 1930s, theGreat Depressiondamaged Japan's economy and gave radical elements within the Japanese military the chance to realize their ambitions of conquering all of Asia. In 1931, theKwantung Army(a Japanese military force stationed inManchuria) staged theMukden Incident,which sparked theInvasion of Manchuriaand its transformation into the Japanese puppet state ofManchukuo.Six years later, theMarco Polo Bridge IncidentoutsidePekingsparked theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945). Japanese troops streamed intoChina,conquering Peking,Shanghai,and the national capital ofNanking;the last conquest was followed by theNanking Massacre.In 1940, Japan entered into analliancewithNazi GermanyandFascist Italy,two similarly militaristic states in Europe, and advanced out of China and into Southeast Asia. The following year, Japanattacked Pearl Harborto prevent the intervention of the United States, which hadbannedoil sales to Japan in response to theSecond Sino-Japanese Warand theensuing invasion of Indochina.

In 1945, Japan surrendered to the United States, beginning theOccupation of Japanand the purging of all militarist influences from Japanese society and politics. In 1947, the newConstitution of Japansupplanted theMeiji Constitutionas the fundamental law of the country, replacing the rule of the Emperor with parliamentary government. With this event, the Empire of Japan officially came to an end and the modernState of Japanwas founded.

North Korea

Main article:Songun

North Korean propaganda mural

Sŏn'gun(often transliterated "songun" ),North Korea's "Military First" policy, regards military power as the highest priority of the country. This has escalated so much in theDPRKthat one in five people serves in the armed forces, and the military has become one of thelargest in the world.

Songunelevates the Korean People's Armed Forces within North Korea as an organization and as a state function, granting it the primary position in theNorth Korean governmentand society. The principle guidesdomestic policyandinternational interactions. It provides the framework of the government, designating the military as the "supreme repository of power". It also facilitates the militarization of non-military sectors by emphasizing the unity of the military and the people by spreading military culture among the masses.The North Korean government grants theKorean People's Armyas the highest priority in the economy and in resource-allocation, and positions it as the model for society to emulate. Songunis also theideologicalconcept behind a shift in policies (since the death ofKim Il Sungin 1994) which emphasize the people's military over all other aspects of state and the interests of the military comes first before the masses (workers).

Philippines

The Philippine Army inMalolosBulacan,c. 1899

Main article:Military history of the Philippines

In the pre-colonial era, theFilipino peoplehad their own forces, divided between the islands which each had its own ruler. They were calledSandig(Guards),Kawal(Knights), andTanod.They also served as the police and watchers on the land, coastlines and seas. In 1521, the Visayan king of MactanLapu-LapuofCebu,organized the first recorded military action against the Spanish colonizers, in theBattle of Mactan.

In the 19th century during thePhilippine Revolution,Andrés Bonifaciofounded theKatipunan,a revolutionary organization against Spain at theCry of Pugad Lawin.Some notable battles were theSiege of Baler,theBattle of Imus,Battle of Kawit, Battle of Nueva Ecija, the victoriousBattle of Alapanand the famousTwin Battles of Binakayan and Dalahican.DuringIndependence,the President GeneralEmilio Aguinaldoestablished theMagdalo,a faction separate fromKatipunan,and he declared the revolutionary government in the constitution of theFirst Philippine Republic.

During theFilipino-American War,theGeneralAntonio Lunaas a high-ranking general, he ordered aconscriptionto all citizens, a mandatory form of national service (at any war) for the increase the density and the manpower of thePhilippine Army.

During the World War II, the Philippines was one of the participants, as a member of Allied forces, the Philippines with the U.S. forces fought the Imperial Japanese Army (1942–1945), one of the notable battles is the victoriousBattle of Manila,which also called "The Liberation".

During the 1970s the PresidentFerdinand Marcosdeclared P.D.1081 ormartial law,which also made the Philippines agarrisonstate. By thePhilippine Constabulary(PC) andIntegrated National Police(INP), the high school or secondary and college education have a compulsory curriculum concerning the military, and nationalism which is the "Citizens Military Training" (CMT) and "Reserve Officers Training Corps" (ROTC). But in 1986, when the constitution changed, this form of national service training program became non-compulsory but still part of the basic education.

Russia

See also:Russian nationalism

Military parade onRed Squarein Moscow

Vladimir Putin with members of the 'Yunarmiya' – or Young Army. The Young Army movement is the Kremlin's attempt to mobilize and provide basic military skills to Russian youth.

Russia has also had a long history of militarism continuing on to the present day driven by its desire to protect its western frontier which has nonatural buffersbetween potential invaders from the rest of continental Europe and her heartlands in European Russia. Ever sincePeter the Great's reforms, Russia became one of Europe's great powers in terms of political and military strength. Through the Imperial era, Russia continued on her quest for territorial expansion into Siberia, Caucasus and into Eastern Europe, eventually conquering the majority of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The end of imperial rule in 1917 meant the loss of some territory following thetreaty of Brest-Litovsk,but much of it was quickly reconquered by the Soviet Union later on, including events such as the partition of Poland and reconquest of the Baltic states in the late 1930s and ‘40s. Soviet influence reached its peak after WWII in the Cold War era, during which the Soviet Union occupied virtually all of Eastern Europe in a military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact, with the Soviet Army playing a key role. All this was lost with thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991. Russia was greatly weakened in what Russia's second PresidentVladimir Putincalled the greatest geopolitical disaster of the 20th century. Nevertheless, underPutin's leadership,a resurgent modern Russia has maintained a tremendous amount of geopolitical influence in the countries spawned from the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and modern Russia remains Eastern Europe's leading, if not dominant, power.

Following theRussian invasion of Ukraine,the Russian government increased their efforts to introduce "patriotic education" into schools.TheAssociated Pressreported that some parents were shocked by the militaristic nature of the Kremlin-promotedImportant Conversationslessons, with some comparing them to the "patriotic education" of the former Soviet Union.

By the end of 2023, Vladimir Putin planned to spend almost 40% ofpublic expenditureson defense and security.UK Chief of Defence Staff AdmiralTony Radakinsaid that "the last time we saw these levels was at the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union."

Turkey

See also:List of wars involving Turkey

Militarism has a long history inTurkey.

TheOttoman Empirelasted for centuries and always relied on its military might, but militarism was not a part of everyday life. Militarism was only introduced into daily life with the advent of modern institutions, particularly schools, which became part of the state apparatus when the Ottoman Empire was succeeded by a new nation state – the Republic of Turkey – in 1923. The founders of the republic were determined to break with the past and modernise the country. There was, however, an inherent contradiction in that their modernist vision was limited by their military roots. The leading reformers were all military men and, in keeping with the military tradition, all believed in the authority and the sacredness of the state. The public also believed in the military. It was the military, after all, who led the nation through theWar of Liberation(1919–1923) and saved the motherland.

Military parade duringRepublic Daycelebrations in Ankara

The first military coup in the history of the republic was on27 May 1960,which resulted in the hanging of PMAdnan Menderesand 2 ministers, and a new constitution was introduced, creating a Constitutional Court to vet the legislation passed by parliament, and a military-dominated National Security Council to oversee the government affairs similar to thepolitburoin the Soviet Union.The second military coup took place on12 March 1971,this time only forcing the government to resign and installing a cabinet of technocrats and bureaucrats without dissolving the parliament. The third military coup took place on12 September 1980,which resulted in the dissolution of parliament and all political parties as well as imposition of a much more authoritarian constitution. There was another military intervention that was called a "post-modern coup" on28 February 1997which merely forced the government to resign, and finally an unsuccessful military coup attempt on15 July 2016.

The constitutional referendums in2010and2017have changed the composition and role of the National Security Council, and placed the armed forces under the control of civilian government.

United States

Main article:United States militarism

See also:United States involvement in regime changeandForeign interventions by the United States

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries political and military leaders reformed the US federal government to establish a stronger central government than had ever previously existed for the purpose of enabling the nationto pursue an imperial policyin the Pacific and in the Caribbean andeconomic militarismto support the development of the new industrial economy. This reform was the result of a conflict between Neo-Hamiltonian Republicans andJeffersonian-JacksonianDemocrats over the proper administration of the state and direction of its foreign policy. The conflict pitted proponents of professionalism, based on business management principles, against those favoring more local control in the hands of laymen and political appointees. The outcome of this struggle, including a more professional federal civil service and a strengthened presidency and executive branch, made a more expansionist foreign policy possible.

After the end of theAmerican Civil Warthe national army fell into disrepair. Reforms based on various European states including Britain, Germany, and Switzerland were made so that it would become responsive to control from the central government, prepared for future conflicts, and develop refined command and support structures; these reforms led to the development of professional military thinkers and cadre.

A pie chart showing global military expenditures by country for 2019, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI

During this time the ideas ofsocial Darwinismhelped propelAmerican overseas expansionin the Pacific and Caribbean.This required modifications for a more efficient central government due to the added administration requirements (see above).

The enlargement of theU.S. Armyfor theSpanish–American Warwas considered essential to the occupation and control of the new territories acquired from Spain in its defeat (Guam,thePhilippines,Puerto Rico,andCuba). The previous limit by legislation of 24,000 men was expanded to 60,000 regulars in the new army bill on 2 February 1901, with allowance at that time for expansion to 80,000 regulars by presidential discretion at times of national emergency.

U.S. forces were again enlarged immensely for World War I. Officers such asGeorge S. Pattonwere permanent captains at the start of the war and received temporary promotions to colonel.

Between the first and second world wars, theUS Marine Corpsengaged in questionable activities in theBanana Warsin Latin America. Retired Major GeneralSmedley Butler,who was at the time of his death the most decorated Marine, spoke strongly against what he considered to be trends toward fascism and militarism. Butler briefed Congress on what he described as aBusiness Plotfor a military coup, for which he had been suggested as leader; the matter was partially corroborated, but the real threat has been disputed. The Latin American expeditions ended withFranklin D. Roosevelt'sGood Neighbor policyof 1934.

PresidentGeorge W. Bushwith troops atFort Hood,Texas, 2003

After World War II, there were major cutbacks, such that units responding early in the Korean War underUnited Nationsauthority (e.g.Task Force Smith) were unprepared, resulting in catastrophic performance. WhenHarry S. TrumanfiredDouglas MacArthur,the tradition of civilian control held and MacArthur left without any hint of military coup.

TheCold Warresulted in serious permanent military buildups.Dwight D. Eisenhower,a retired top military commander elected as a civilian president, warned, as he was leaving office, of the development of amilitary–industrial complex.In the Cold War, there emerged many civilian academics and industrial researchers, such asHenry KissingerandHerman Kahn,who had significant input into the use of military force. The complexities of nuclear strategy and the debates surrounding them helped produce a new group of 'defense intellectuals' and think tanks, such as theRand Corporation(where Kahn, among others, worked).

It has been argued that the United States has shifted to a state of neomilitarism since the end of theVietnam War.This form of militarism is distinguished by the reliance on a relatively small number of volunteer fighters; heavy reliance on complex technologies; and the rationalization and expansion of government advertising and recruitment programs designed to promote military service.PresidentJoe Bidensigned a record $886 billiondefense spending billinto law on December 22, 2023.

Venezuela

Members of theVenezuelan armed forcescarryingChávez eyesflags saying, "Chávez lives, the fight continues"

See also:Bolivarian RevolutionandBolivarian Continental Movement

Militarism in Venezuela follows the cult and myth ofSimón Bolívar,known as the liberator of Venezuela.For much of the 1800s, Venezuela was ruled by powerful, militarist leaders known ascaudillos.Between 1892 and 1900 alone, six rebellions occurred and 437 military actions were taken to obtain control of Venezuela.With the military controlling Venezuela for much of its history, the country practiced a "militaryethos",with civilians today still believing that military intervention in the government is positive, especially during times of crisis, with many Venezuelans believing that the military opens democratic opportunities instead of blocking them.

Much of the modern political movement behind theFifth Republic of Venezuela,ruled by the Bolivarian government established byHugo Chávez,was built on the following of Bolívar and such militaristic ideals.

See also

• Jingoism
• Militarization of police
• Stratocracy

References

Notes

Further reading

• Bacevich, Andrew J.The New American Militarism.Oxford: University Press, 2005.
• Barr, Ronald J. "The Progressive Army: US Army Command and Administration 1870–1914." St. Martin's Press, Inc. 1998.ISBN0-312-21467-7.
• Barzilai, Gad.Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order.Albany: State University of New York Press. 1996.
• Bond, Brian.War and Society in Europe, 1870–1970.McGill-Queen's University Press. 1985ISBN0-7735-1763-4
• Conversi, Daniele 2007 'Homogenisation, nationalism and war’,Nations and Nationalism,Vol. 13, no 3, 2007, pp. 1–24
• Ensign, Tod.America's Military Today.The New Press. 2005.ISBN1-56584-883-7.
• Fink, Christina.Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule.White Lotus Press. 2001.ISBN1-85649-925-1.
• Freedman, Lawrence,Command: The Politics of Military Operations from Korea to Ukraine,Allen Lane,September 2022, 574 pp.,ISBN978 0 241 45699 6
• Frevert, Ute.A Nation in Barracks: Modern Germany, Military Conscription and Civil Society.Berg, 2004.ISBN1-85973-886-9
• Huntington, Samuel P..Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations.Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981.
• Ito, Tomohide:Militarismus des Zivilen in Japan 1937–1940: Diskurse und ihre Auswirkungen auf politische Entscheidungsprozesse(Reihe zur Geschichte Asiens; Bd. 19). Iudicium Verlag, München 2019.ISBN978-3862052202
• Ritter, Gerhard.The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany,translated from the German by Heinz Norden, Coral Gables, Fla., University of Miami Press 1969–73.
• Vagts, Alfred.A History of Militarism.Meridian Books, 1959.
• Western, Jon.Selling Intervention and War.Johns Hopkins University. 2005.ISBN0-8018-8108-0