Mixed martial arts
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| Highestgoverning body | International Mixed Martial Arts Federation |
|---|---|
| Characteristics | |
| Contact | Full contact |
| Mixed-sex | No, separate male and female events |
| Type | Combat sport |
| Venue | Octagonal cage,other type of cage, MMA ring |
Mixed martial arts(MMA)[a]is a full-contactcombat sportbased onstriking,grapplingandground fighting,incorporating techniques from various combat sports from around the world.[10]The first documented use of the termmixed martial artswas in a review ofUFC 1by television criticHoward Rosenbergin 1993.[11]
During the early 20th century, various interstylistic contests took place throughoutJapanand in the countries of theEast Asia.At the same time, inBrazil,there was a phenomenon calledvale tudo,which became known for unrestricted fights between various styles such asjudo/Brazilian jiu-jitsu,catch wrestling/luta livre,Muay Thai,andcapoeira.Another precursor to modern MMA was the 1976Ali vs. Inokiexhibition bout (which ended in a draw after 15 rounds), fought between boxerMuhammad Aliand wrestlerAntonio Inokiin Japan, where it later inspired the foundation ofShootoin 1985,Pancrasein 1993, and thePride Fighting Championshipsin 1997.
In the 1990s, theGracie familybrought theirBrazilian jiu-jitsu style,first developed in Brazil from the 1920s, to the United States – which culminated in the founding of theUltimate Fighting Championship(UFC) promotion company in 1993. The company held an event with almost no rules, mostly due to the influence ofArt DavieandRorion Gracieattempting to replicate vale tudo fights that existed in Brazil[12]and would later implement a different set of rules (example: eliminating kicking a grounded opponent), which differed from other leagues which were more in favour of realistic, street-like fights.[13]
Originally promoted as a competition to find the most effectivemartial artsfor real unarmed combat, competitors from different fighting styles were pitted against one another in contests with relatively few rules.[14]Later, individual fighters incorporated multiple martial arts into their style. MMA promoters were pressured to adoptadditional rulesto increase competitors' safety, to comply with sport regulations and to broaden mainstream acceptance of the sport.[15]Following these changes, the sport has seen increased popularity with apay-per-viewbusiness that rivalsbo xingandprofessional wrestling.[16]
History[edit]
Antiquity[edit]
InAncient China,combat sport appeared in the form ofLeitai,a no-holds-barred mixed combat sport that combinedChinese martial arts,bo xing and wrestling.[17]
InAncient Greece,there was a sport calledpankration,which featured grappling and striking skills similar to those found in modern MMA. Pankration was formed by combining the already established wrestling and bo xing traditions and, in Olympic terms, first featured in the 33rdOlympiadin 648 BC. All strikes and holds were allowed with the exception of biting and gouging, which were banned. The fighters, called pankratiasts, fought until someone could not continue or signaled submission by raising their index finger; there were no rounds.[19][20]According to the historian E. Norman Gardiner, "No branch of athletics was more popular than the pankration."[21]There is also evidence of similar mixed combat sports inAncient Egypt,IndiaandJapan.[17]
Modern-era precursors[edit]
The mid-19th century saw the prominence of the new sportsavatein the combat sports circle. French savate fighters wanted to test their techniques against the traditional combat styles of its time. In 1852, a contest was held in France between Frenchsavateursand Englishbare-knuckle boxersin which French fighter Rambaud aliasla Resistancefought English fighter Dickinson and won using his kicks. However, the English team still won the four other match-ups during the contest.[22]Contests occurred in the late 19th to mid-20th century between Frenchsavateursand other combat styles. Examples include a 1905 fight between French savateur George Dubois and ajudopractitioner Re-nierand which resulted in the latter winning by submission, as well as the highly publicized 1957 fight between French savateur andprofessional boxerJacques Cayron and a young Japanesekaratekanamed Mochizuki Hiroo which ended when Cayron knocked Hiroo out with ahook.[22]
Catch wrestlingappeared in the late 19th century, combining several global styles ofwrestling,including Indianpehlwaniand English wrestling.[23][24]In turn, catch wrestling went on to greatly influence modern MMA.[citation needed][25]No-holds-barred fighting reportedly took place in the late 1880s when wrestlers representing the style of catch wrestling and many others met in tournaments and music-hall challenge matches throughout Europe. In the US, the first major encounter between a boxer and a wrestler in modern times took place in 1887 whenJohn L. Sullivan,then heavyweight world bo xing champion, entered the ring with his trainer, wrestling championWilliam Muldoon,and was slammed to the mat in two minutes. The next publicized encounter occurred in the late 1890s when future heavyweight bo xing championBob Fitzsimmonstook on European wrestling championErnest Roeber.In September 1901,Frank "Paddy" Slavin,who had been a contender for Sullivan's bo xing title, knocked out future world wrestling championFrank GotchinDawson City,Canada.[26]The judo-practitioner Ren-nierand, who gained fame after defeating George Dubois, would fight again in another similar contest, which he lost to Ukrainian Catch wrestler Ivan Poddubny.[22]
Another early example of mixed martial arts wasBartitsu,whichEdward William Barton-Wrightfounded in London in 1899. Combiningcatch wrestling,judo,bo xing,savate,jujutsuandcanne de combat(French stick fighting), Bartitsu was the first martial art known to have combined Asian and European fighting styles,[27]and which saw MMA-style contests throughout England, pitting European catch wrestlers and Japanese judoka champions against representatives of various European wrestling styles.[27]
Among the precursors of modern MMA are mixed style contests throughout Europe, Japan, and the Pacific Rim during the early 1900s.[28]In Japan, these contests were known asmerikan,from the Japanese slang for "American [fighting]".Merikancontests were fought under a variety of rules, including points decision, best of three throws or knockdowns, and victory via knockout or submission.[29]
Sambo,a martial art and combat sport developed in Russia in the early 1920s, merged various forms of combat styles such as wrestling, judo and striking into one unique martial art.[30][31]The popularity of professional wrestling, which was contested under variouscatch wrestlingrules at the time, waned afterWorld War I,when the sport split into two genres: "shoot",in which the fighters actually competed, and"show",which evolved into modernprofessional wrestling.[32]In 1936, heavyweight bo xing contenderKingfish Levinskyand professional wrestlerRay Steelecompeted in a mixed match, which catch wrestler Steele won in 35 seconds.[32]27 years later, Ray Steele's protégéLou Theszfought boxerJersey Joe Walcotttwice in mixed style bouts. The first match was a real contest which Thesz won while the second match was a work, which Thesz also won.
In the 1940s in the Palama Settlement in Hawaii, five martial arts masters, under the leadership of Adriano Emperado, curious to determine which martial art was best, began testing each other in their respective arts of kenpo, jujitsu, Chinese and American bo xing andtang soo do.From this they developedkajukenbo,the first American mixed martial arts.
In 1963, a catch wrestler and judokaGene Lebellfought professional boxer Milo Savage in ano-holds-barredmatch. Lebell won byHarai Goshito rear naked choke, leaving Savage unconscious. This was the first televised bout of mixed-style fighting in North America. The hometown crowd was so enraged that they began to boo and throw chairs at Lebell.[33]
On February 12, 1963, three karatekas fromOyama dojo(kyokushinlater) went to the Lumpinee Bo xing Stadium in Thailand and fought against three Muay Thai fighters. The three kyokushin karate fighters were Tadashi Nakamura, Kenji Kurosaki and Akio Fujihira (also known as Noboru Osawa), while the Muay Thai team of three authentic Thai fighter.[34]Japan won 2–1: Tadashi Nakamura and Akio Fujihira both knocked out their opponents with punches while Kenji Kurosaki, who fought the Thai, was knocked out by elbows. The Japanese fighter who lost, Kenji Kurosaki, was a kyokushin instructor, rather than a contender, and that he had stood in as a substitute for the absent chosen fighter. In June of the same year, karateka and future kickboxerTadashi Sawamurafaced top Thai fighter Samarn Sor Adisorn: Sawamura was knocked down sixteen times on his way to defeat.[34]Sawamura went on to incorporate what he learned in that fight in kickbo xing tournaments.
During the late 1960s to early 1970s, the concept ofhybrid martial artswas popularized in the West byBruce Leevia his system ofJeet Kune Do.[35]Lee believed that "the best fighter is not a boxer, karate or judo man. The best fighter is someone who can adapt to any style, to be formless, to adopt an individual's own style and not following the system of styles."[36]In 2004, UFC PresidentDana Whitewould call Lee the "father of mixed martial arts" stating: "If you look at the way Bruce Lee trained, the way he fought, and many of the things he wrote, he said the perfect style was no style. You take a little something from everything. You take the good things from every different discipline, use what works, and you throw the rest away".[37]
A contemporary of Bruce Lee,Wing ChunpractitionerWong Shun Leung,gained prominence fighting in 60–100 illegalbeimofights against other Chinese martial artists of various styles. Wong also fought and won against Western fighters of other combat styles, such as his match against Russian boxer Giko,[38]his televised fight against afencer,[39]and his fight against Taiwanese kung fu master Wu Ming Jeet.[40]Wong combined bo xing andkickbo xinginto his kung fu, as Bruce Lee did.
Muhammad Ali vs. Antonio Inokitook place in Japan in 1976. The classic match-up between professional boxer and professional wrestler turned sour as each fighter refused to engage in the other's style, and after a 15-round stalemate it was declared a draw.Muhammad Alisustained a substantial amount of damage to his legs, asAntonio Inokislide-kicked him continuously for the duration of the bout, causing him to be hospitalized for the next three days.[41]The fight played an important role in the history of mixed martial arts.[42]
The basis of modern mixed martial arts in Japan can be found across severalshoot-styleprofessional wrestling promotions likeUWF InternationalandPro Wrestling Fujiwara Gumi,both founded in 1991, that attempted to create acombat-based style which blendedwrestling,kickbo xingandsubmission grappling.Another promotion formed around the same time byAkira MaedacalledFighting Network RINGSinitially started as a shoot-style professional wrestling promotion but it also promoted early mixed martial arts contests. From 1995 onwards it began identifying itself as a mixed martial arts promotion and moved away from the original shoot style. Professional wrestlersMasakatsu FunakiandMinoru SuzukifoundedPancrasein 1993 which promoted legitimate contests initially under professional wrestling rules. These promotions inspiredPride Fighting Championshipswhich started in 1997. Pride was acquired by its rival Ultimate Fighting Championship in 2007.[43][44]
A fight betweenGolden Glovesbo xing championJoey Hadleyand Arkansas Karate Champion David Valovich happened on June 22, 1976, at Memphis Blues Baseball Park. The bout had mixed rules: thekaratekawas allowed to use his fists, feet and knees, while the boxer could only use his fists. Hadley won the fight via knockout on the first round.[45]
In 1988Rick RoufuschallengedChangpuek Kiatsongritto a non-titleMuay Thaivs.kickbo xingsuper fight. Roufus was at the time an undefeated Kickboxer and held both theKICKSuper Middleweight World title and the PKC Middleweight U.S. title. Kiatsongrit was finding it increasingly difficult to get fights in Thailand as his weight (70 kg) was not typical for Thailand, where competitive bouts tended to be at the lower weights. Roufus knocked Changpuek down twice with punches in the first round, breaking Changpuek's jaw, but lost by technical knockout in the fourth round due to the culmination of low kicks to the legs that he was unprepared for. This match was the first popular fight which showcased the power of such low kicks to a predominantly Western audience.[46]
Timeline of major events[edit]
| 2,000+ years ago | –Leitai | |
| –Pankration | ||
| Late 19th century | –Hybrid martial arts | |
| –Catch wrestling | ||
| Late 1880s | – Early mixed style matches | |
| 1899 | –Barton-WrightandBartitsu | |
| Early 1900s | – Merikan contests | |
| 1920s | – Earlyvale tudocompetitions andGracie Challengematches | |
| 1950s–1960s | –Hong Kongrooftopstreet fights | |
| 1963 | –Gene Lebellvs. Milo Savage | |
| 1960s–1970s | –Bruce LeeandJeet Kune Do | |
| 1970s | –Antonio InokiandIshu Kakutōgi Sen | |
| 1976 | –Muhammad Ali vs. Antonio Inoki | |
| 1979–1980 | – First MMA promotion in the U.S. forms –CV Productions, Inc.'sTough Guy Contest | |
| 1983 | – First bill introduced to outlaw MMA in the U.S. –The Tough Guy Law | |
| 1985 | – First MMA promotion in Japan forms –Shooto | |
| 1989 | – First professional Shooto event held | |
| 1991 | – FirstDesafio(BJJvs.Luta Livre) event | |
| 1993 | –Pancraseforms | |
| –UFCforms | ||
| 1995 | – The L-1 Tournament, the first all-women's MMA event, was held byLLPW | |
| Mid/Late 1990s | – International vale tudo competitions | |
| 1997–2007 | –PRIDE FCera | |
| 1997 | – First MMA promotion in Russia forms –M-1 Global | |
| 1999 | – International Sport Combat Federation founded as the first sanctioning body of MMA | |
| 2000 | –New Jersey SACBdevelops theUnified Rules of MMA | |
| 2001 | –Zuffabuys UFC | |
| – First MMA promotion in the UK forms –Cage Warriors | ||
| 2005 | –The Ultimate Fighterdebuts | |
| –US Armybegins sanctioning MMA | ||
| 2006 | – Zuffa buysWFAandWEC | |
| –UFC 66generates over a millionPPVbuys | ||
| 2007 | – Zuffa buys PRIDE FC | |
| 2008 | –EliteXC: Primetimegains 6.5 million peak viewers onCBS | |
| 2009 | – First MMA promotion in Mexico forms –Ultimate Warrior Challenge Mexico | |
| –Strikeforceholds thefirst major MMA cardwith a female main event | ||
| 2011 | –ONE FCforms | |
| – WEC merged with UFC | ||
| – Zuffa buys Strikeforce | ||
| –Velasquez vs. Dos Santosgains 8.8 million peak viewers onFox | ||
| 2012 | –International Mixed Martial Arts Federationwas founded with support from UFC | |
| 2013 | –UFC 157: Rousey vs. Carmoucheis headlined by the first women's bout in UFC history | |
| 2016 | –WME-IMGbuys UFC for US$4 billion | |
| 2017 | – WME-IMG changed its holding name to Endeavor | |
| 2021 | – Endeavor listed its shares on theNew York Stock Exchangeunder symbol EDR | |
| 2023 | – UFCmergedwithWWE,with both continuing to run as separate divisions ofTKO Group Holdings | |
| –PFLbuysBellator MMA |
Modern sport[edit]
The movement that led to the creation of present-day mixed martial arts scenes emerged from a confluence of several earlier martial arts scenes: thevale tudoevents in Brazil, rooftop fights in Hong Kong'sstreet fightingculture, andprofessional wrestlers,especiallyin Japan.
Vale tudo began in the 1920s and became renowned through its association with the "Gracie challenge",which was issued byCarlos GracieandHélio Gracieand upheld later by descendants of theGracie family.The "Gracie Challenges" were held in the garages and gyms of the Gracie family members. When the popularity grew, these types of mixed bouts were a staple attraction at the carnivals in Brazil.[47]
In the mid-20th century, mixed martial arts contests emerged in Hong Kong'sstreet fightingculture in the form of rooftop fights. During the early 20th century, there was an influx of migrants from mainland China, includingChinese martial artsteachers who opened up martial arts schools in Hong Kong. In the mid-20th century, soaringcrime in Hong Kong,combined with limitedHong Kong Policemanpower, led to many young Hongkongers learning martial arts forself-defence.Around the 1960s, there were about 400 martial arts schools in Hong Kong, teaching their own distinctive styles of martial arts. In Hong Kong's street fighting culture, there emerged a rooftop fight scene in the 1950s and 1960s, where gangs from rival martial arts schools challenged each other to bare-knuckle fights on Hong Kong's rooftops, in order to avoid crackdowns by colonialBritish Hong Kongauthorities. The most famous fighter to emerge from Hong Kong's rooftop fight scene wasBruce Lee,who combined different techniques from different martial arts schools into his ownhybrid martial artssystem calledJeet Kune Do.Lee went on to popularize the concept of mixed martial arts internationally.[48]
Early mixed-match martial artsprofessional wrestlingbouts in Japan (known asIshu Kakutōgi Sen( dị chủng cách đấu kỹ chiến ), literally "heterogeneous combat sports bouts" ) became popular withAntonio Inokionly in the 1970s. Inoki was a disciple ofRikidōzan,but also ofKarl Gotch,who trained numerous Japanese wrestlers incatch wrestling.
Regulated mixed martial arts competitions were first introduced in the United States byCV Productions, Inc.Its first competition, calledTough Guy Contestwas held on March 20, 1980,New Kensington, Pennsylvania,Holiday Inn.During that year the company renamed the brand toSuper Fightersand sanctioned ten regulated tournaments inPennsylvania.In 1983, Pennsylvania State Senate passed a bill known as the "Tough Guy Law"that specifically called for:" Prohibiting Tough Guy contests or Battle of the Brawlers contests ", and ended the sport.[49][50][51]
Japan had its own form of mixed martial arts discipline,Shooto,which evolved from shoot wrestling in 1985, as well as the shoot wrestling derivativePancrase,which was founded as a promotion in 1993.Pancrase 1was held in Japan in September 1993, two months beforeUFC 1was held in the United States in November 1993.
In 1993, the sport was reintroduced to the United States by theUltimate Fighting Championship(UFC).[52]UFC promoters initially pitched the event as a real-lifefighting video gametournament similar toStreet FighterandMortal Kombat.[53]The sport gained international exposure and widespread publicity when jiu-jitsu fighterRoyce Graciewon thefirst Ultimate Fighting Championshiptournament, submitting three challengers in a total of just five minutes.[54]sparking a revolution in martial arts.[55][56]
The firstVale Tudo Japantournaments were held in 1994 and 1995 and were both won byRickson Gracie.Around the same time, International Vale Tudo competition started to develop through (World Vale Tudo Championship (WVC),VTJ,IVC,UVF etc.). Interest in mixed martial arts as a sport resulted in the creation of thePride Fighting Championships(Pride) in 1997.[57]
The sport reached a new peak of popularity in North America in December 2006: arematchbetween thenUFClight heavyweight championChuck Liddelland former championTito Ortiz,rivaled thePPVsales of some of the biggest bo xing events of all time,[58]and helped the UFC's 2006 PPV gross surpass that of any promotion in PPV history. In 2007,Zuffa LLC,the owners of the UFC MMA promotion, bought Japanese rival MMA brandPride FC,merging the contracted fighters under one promotion.[59]Comparisons were drawn to the consolidation that occurred in other sports, such as theAFL-NFL MergerinAmerican football.[60]
Origin of the termMMA[edit]
The first documented use of the namemixed martial artswas in a review ofUFC 1by television critic,Howard Rosenberg,in 1993.[11][61]The term gained popularity when the website, newfullcontact (one of the biggest websites covering the sport at the time), hosted and reprinted the article. The first use of the term by a promotion was in September 1995 by Rick Blume, president and CEO of Battlecade Extreme Fighting, just after UFC 7.[62] UFC official,Jeff Blatnick,was responsible for the Ultimate Fighting Championship officially adopting the name mixed martial arts. It was previously marketed as "Ultimate Fighting" and "No Holds Barred (NHB)", until Blatnick andJohn McCarthyproposed the name "MMA" at theUFC 17rules meeting in response to increased public criticism.[63]The question as to who actually coined the name is still in debate.[64]
Regulation[edit]
The first state-regulated MMA event was held in Biloxi, Mississippi on August 23, 1996, with the sanctioning of IFC's Mayhem in Mississippi[65]show by the Mississippi Athletic Commission under William Lyons. The rules used were an adaptation of the kickbo xing rules already accepted by most state athletic commissions. These modified kickbo xing rules allowed for take downs and ground fighting and did away with rounds, although they did allow for fighters to be stood up by the referee and restarted if there was no action on the ground. These rules were the first in modern MMA to define fouls, fighting surfaces and the use of the cage.
In March 1997, the Iowa Athletic Commission officially sanctionedBattlecade Extreme Fightingunder a modified form of its existing rules forShootfighting.These rules created the three 'five-minute round/one-minute break' format, and mandated shootfighting gloves, as well as weight classes for the first time. Illegal blows were listed as groin strikes, head butting, biting, eye gouging, hair pulling, striking an opponent with an elbow while the opponent is on the mat, kidney strikes, and striking the back of the head with closed fist. Holding onto the ring or cage for any reason was defined as a foul.[66][67]While there are minor differences between these and the final Unified Rules, notably regarding elbow strikes, the Iowa rules allowed mixed martial arts promoters to conduct essentially modern events legally, anywhere in the state. On March 28, 1997, Extreme Fighting 4 was held under these rules, making it the first show conducted under a version of the modern rules.[citation needed]
In April 2000, theCalifornia State Athletic Commissionvoted unanimously in favor of regulations that later became the foundation for theUnified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.However, when the legislation was sent to the California capital in Sacramento for review, it was determined that the sport fell outside the jurisdiction of the CSAC, rendering the vote meaningless.[68]
On September 30, 2000, theNew Jersey State Athletic Control Board(NJSACB) began allowing mixed martial arts promoters to conduct events in New Jersey. The first event was an IFC event titled Battleground 2000 held in Atlantic City. The intent was to allow the NJSACB to observe actual events and gather information to establish a comprehensive set of rules to regulate the sport effectively.[69]
On April 3, 2001, the NJSACB held a meeting to discuss the regulation of mixed martial arts events. This meeting attempted to unify the myriad rules and regulations which had been utilized by the different mixed martial arts organizations. At this meeting, the proposed uniform rules were agreed upon by the NJSACB, several other regulatory bodies, numerous promoters of mixed martial arts events and other interested parties in attendance. At the conclusion of the meeting, all parties in attendance were able to agree upon a uniform set of rules to govern the sport of mixed martial arts.[69]
The rules adopted by the NJSACB have become the de facto standard set of rules for professional mixed martial arts across North America. On July 30, 2009, a motion was made at the annual meeting of theAssociation of Bo xing Commissionsto adopt these rules as the "Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts". The motion passed unanimously.[70]
In November 2005, theUnited States Armybegan to sanction mixed martial arts with the first annual Army Combatives Championships held by theUS Army Combatives School.[71]
Canadaformally decriminalized mixed martial arts with a vote on Bill S-209 on June 5, 2013. The bill allows for provinces to have the power to create athletic commissions to regulate and sanction professional mixed martial arts bouts.[72]
MMA organizations[edit]
Promotions[edit]
According toMMA portalTapologylistings, hundreds of MMA promotions around the world produce MMA events.[73]
Since the UFC came to prominence inmainstream mediain 2006, and with their 2007 merger with Pride FC and purchases ofWECandStrikeforce,no companies have presented significant competition,[74]and the UFC is regarded as having most of thetop rankedtalent.[75]Fighters usually get contracts in the UFC after competing successfully in other MMA promotions from around the world.
Some MMA promotions tend to exist more to build up prospects while others have a mix of prospects and veterans.[76]Some exist only to be feeder leagues to the bigger promotions (e.g.LFA,CWFC),[77]others exist to try to be the best in the world (e.g.ACB,ONE Championship).[78]Some promotions only do four shows a year while others are doing them monthly.
According toScorecardMMA,one of the world's top statistical rankings services for MMA,[79]and the only one currently ranking MMA promotions worldwide statistically; "To rank MMA Promotions we use an index that we calculate weekly-Promotion Score.Promo Score calculation is based on the strength of Events and Fighters that Promotion has at that time. Promo Score has three main components:
- Event Index: based on the quality of events in the last quarter and in the last year.
- Owned Fighter Index: calculated based on the quality of fighters that the promotion currently owns (contracted, or used recently).
- Utilized Fighters Index: fighters that the promotion has used in the last four months and in the last three quarters.
As of May 26, 2018, the top 10 MMA promotions (out of 41 ranked) in the world are:[80]
- Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC).Based in Las Vegas, United States. Broadcasts their fights locally onESPN(prior to 2019 onFox Sports) and on other networks around the world.
- Bellator MMA.Based in Newport Beach, California, United States. Broadcasts their fights locally on theShowtime(prior to 2021 onParamount Network) and other networks around the world.
- Absolute Championship Berkut(ACB). Based inGrozny,Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally onMatch TVand streaming onYouTube(with Russian commentary) andFacebook(with English commentary).
- Fight Nights Global(FNG). Based in Moscow, Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally onMatch TV,and streaming onVKontakte.
- ONE Championship.Based in Kallang, Singapore. Broadcasts their fights regionally onFox Sports Asiaand streaming on theirMobile app(withoutGeo-blocking).
- Rizin Fighting Federation(Rizin FF). Based in Tokyo, Japan. Broadcast their fights locally onFuji Televisionand forPay-per-viewonSKY PerfecTV!(Japan only) andFITE TV(internationally).
- Invicta FC(all female MMA). Based in Enka, North Carolina, United States. Broadcasts their fights onUFC Fight Pass.
- Pancrase.Based in Tokyo, Japan. Broadcast their fights locally onTokyo MXand streaming onAbemaTV(with Japanese commentary) and on UFC Fight Pass (with English commentary).
- M-1 Global.Based inSt. Petersburg,Russia. Broadcasts their fights locally onRussia-2and streaming on their mobile app (with English commentary).
- Legacy Fighting Alliance(LFA). Based in Houston, Texas, US. Broadcasts their fights locally onAXS TV Fights.
Gyms[edit]
There are hundreds of MMA training facilities throughout the world.[81][82]
These are the current top MMA Gyms in the world based on how many top ranked UFC fighters they currently train. There are 160 fighters, who train at over 80 different gyms, in the top 15 of the UFC's 10 divisions. The rankings are based on a system where a champion earns their gym 25 points, A #1 contender is 15, a #2 contender 10 and then a decrease in ranking equaling a decrease of 1 point until the ranking reaches #10. From there, rankings 11–15 are each worth one point. (updated July 2015):[83]
- Nova Uniãolocated in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Jackson-Winkeljohn MMAlocated in Albuquerque, New Mexico
- American Kickbo xing Academy(AKA) located in San Jose, California.
- Team Alpha Malelocated in Sacramento, California.
- American Top Team(ATT) located in Coconut Creek, Florida.
- Kings MMAlocated in Huntington Beach, California.
- Blackzilianslocated in Boca Raton, Florida.
- Serra-Longolocated in Long Island, New York.
- Black House(Team Nogueira) based out of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- Teixeira MMA & Fitness(Teixeira MMA) located in Bethel, Connecticut.[84]
Fighter development[edit]
As a result of an increased number of competitors, organized training camps, information sharing, and modernkinesiology,the understanding of the effectiveness of various strategies has been greatly improved. UFC commentatorJoe Roganclaimed that martial arts evolved more in the ten years following 1993 than in the preceding 700 years combined.[85]
"During his reign atop the sport in the late 1990s he was the prototype – he could strike with the best strikers; he could grapple with the best grapplers; his endurance was second to none."
— describing UFC championFrank Shamrock's early dominance[86]
The high profile of modern MMA promotions such as UFC and Pride has fostered an accelerated development of the sport. The early 1990s saw a wide variety of traditional styles competing in the sport.[87]However, early competition saw varying levels of success among disparate styles. In the early 1990s, practitioners of grappling based styles such asBrazilian jiu-jitsudominated competition in the United States. Practitioners of striking based arts such asbo xing,kickbo xing,andkarate,who were unfamiliar with submission grappling, proved to be unprepared to deal with itssubmission techniques.[88][89][90][91][92]As competitions became more and more common, those with a base in striking arts became more competitive as they cross-trained in styles based aroundtakedownsand submission holds.[92]Likewise, those from the varying grappling styles added striking techniques to their arsenal. This increase ofcross-trainingresulted in fighters becoming increasingly multidimensional and well-rounded in their skill-sets.
The new hybridization of fighting styles can be seen in the technique of "ground and pound" developed by wrestling-based UFC pioneers such asDan Severn,Don FryeandMark Coleman.These wrestlers realized the need for the incorporation of strikes on the ground as well as on the feet, and incorporated ground striking into their grappling-based styles. Mark Coleman stated at UFC 14 that his strategy was to "Ground him and pound him", which may be the first televised use of the term.
Since the late 1990s, both strikers and grapplers have been successful at MMA, though it is rare to see any fighter who is not schooled in both striking and grappling arts reach the highest levels of competition.
The greatest MMA fighter of all time is considered by experts, fighters and fans to be either middleweightAnderson Silva,heavyweightFedor Emelianenko,light heavyweightJon Jones,welterweightGeorges St-Pierre,flyweightDemetrious Johnsonor lightweightKhabib Nurmagomedov.[93][94][95][96][97][98]
Fighter ranking[edit]
MMA fighters are ranked according to their performance and outcome of their fights and level of competition they faced. The most popular and used, ranking portals are:
- Fight Matrix:Ranks up to 250–500 fighters worldwide for every possible division male and female.
- Sherdog:Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide only for current available UFC divisions. Also used by ESPN.
- SB Nation:Ranks top 14 fighters worldwide only for male divisions. Also used byUSA Today.
- MMAjunkie:Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for current UFC available divisions.
- UFC:Ranks top 15 contenders, UFC signed fighters only, as per UFC divisions. (For example: #2 means the fighter is #3 for the UFC, behind the Champion and the #1.)
- Tapology: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for every possible division.[99]
- Ranking MMA: Top 50 MMA World Rankings for all Men's Divisions and Top 25 MMA World Rankings for all Women's Divisions. RankingMMA publishes Independent Mixed Martial Arts rankings that does not exclude any fighter based on their promotion. RankingMMA also provides UFC Rankings (Complete Roster), Historical MMA Rankings, Non-UFC Rankings, and MMA Prospect Rankings. Ranking MMA has published MMA World Rankings since 2006.
- Sports Illustrated:Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide for current UFC available divisions.[100]
- MMA Rising: Ranks top 10 fighters worldwide in every possible division.[101]Notable for theirUnified Women's Mixed Martial Arts. Rankings[102][103]
- MMA Weekly: Ranks top 10 male fighters worldwide in every possible division, and P4P for female fighters.[104]Also used byYahoo! Sports.
Rules[edit]
The rules for modern mixed martial arts competitions have changed significantly since the early days ofvale tudo,Japaneseshoot wrestling,andUFC 1,and even more from the historic style ofpankration.As the knowledge of fighting techniques spread among fighters and spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems needed to be amended.[105] The main motivations for these rule changes were protection of the health of the fighters, the desire to shed the perception of "barbarism and lawlessness", and to be recognized as a legitimate sport.[citation needed]
The new rules included the introduction ofweight classes;as knowledge about submissions spread, differences in weight had become a significant factor. There are nine different weight classes in theUnified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.These nine weight classes includeflyweight(up to 125 lb / 56.7 kg),bantamweight(up to 135 lb / 61.2 kg),featherweight(up to 145 lb / 65.8 kg),lightweight(up to 155 lb / 70.3 kg),welterweight(up to 170 lb / 77.1 kg),middleweight(up to 185 lb / 83.9 kg),light heavyweight(up to 205 lb / 93.0 kg),heavyweight(up to 265 lb / 120.2 kg), andsuper heavyweightwith no upper weight limit.[69]
Small, open-fingered gloveswere introduced to protect fists, reduce the occurrence of cuts (and stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for striking to allow more captivating matches. Gloves were first made mandatory in Japan'sShootopromotion and were later adopted by the UFC as it developed into a regulated sport. Most professional fights have the fighters wear 4 oz gloves, whereas some jurisdictions require amateurs to wear a slightly heavier 6 oz glove for more protection for the hands and wrists.
Time limits were established to avoid long fights with little action where competitors conserved their strength. Matches without time limits also complicated the airing of live events. The time limits in most professional fights are three 5 minute rounds, and championship fights are normally five 5-minute rounds. Similar motivations produced the "stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived that both are resting on the ground or not advancing toward a dominant position.[105]
In the U.S., state athletic and bo xing commissions have played a crucial role in the introduction of additional rules because they oversee MMA in a similar fashion to bo xing. In Japan and most of Europe, there is no regulating authority over competitions, so these organizations have greater freedom in rule development and event structure.[citation needed]
Previously, Japan-based organizationPride Fighting Championshipsheld an opening 10-minute round followed by two five-minute rounds. Stomps,soccer kicksand knees to the head of a grounded opponent are legal, but elbow strikes to the head are not.[106]This rule set is more predominant in the Asian-based organizations as opposed to European and American rules. More recently, Singapore-based organizationONE Championshipallows soccer kicks and knees to the head of a grounded opponent as well as elbow strikes to the head, but does not allow head stomps.[107]In 2016, ONE later banned soccer kicks.[108]However, they still allow knees to the head of a grounded opponent.
Victory[edit]
Victory in a match is normally gained either by the judges' decision after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee (for example if a competitor cannot defend themself intelligently) or the fight doctor (due to an injury), asubmission,by a competitor'scornermanthrowing in the towel, or byknockout.
Knockout (KO)[edit]
As soon as a fighter is unable to continue due to legal strikes, his opponent is declared the winner. As MMA rules allow submissions andground and pound,the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to the fighter.
Technical knockout (TKO)[edit]
Referee stoppage: The referee may stop a match in progress if:
- a fighter becomes dominant to the point where the opponent cannot intelligently defend themself and is taking excessive damage as a result
- a fighter appears to be losing consciousness as he/she is being struck
- a fighter appears to have a significant injury such as a cut or a broken bone
Doctor stoppage/cut: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries, such as a large cut. The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a disqualification or no contest will be issued instead.
Corner stoppage: a fighter's corner may announce defeat on the fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress or between rounds. This is normally done when a fighter is being beaten to the point where it is dangerous and unnecessary to continue. In some cases, the fighter may be injured.
Retirement: a fighter is so dazed or exhausted that he/she cannot physically continue fighting. Usually occurs between rounds.
Submission[edit]
A fighter may admit defeat during a match by:
- a physical tap on the opponent's body or mat/floor
- tapping verbally
Technical Submission: the referee stops the match when the fighter is caught in a submission hold and is in danger of being injured. This can occur when a fighter is choked unconscious, or when a bone has been broken in a submission hold (a broken arm due to a kimura, etc.)
Decision[edit]
If the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are organization-specific.
Technical decision: in the unified rules of MMA, if a fighter is unable to continue due to an accidental illegal technique late in the fight, a technical decision is rendered by the judges based on who is ahead on the judges' scorecards at that time. In a three-round fight, two rounds must be completed for a technical decision to be awarded and in a five-round fight, three rounds must be completed.
Other conditions[edit]
Forfeit: a fighter or their representative may forfeit a match prior to the beginning of the match, thereby losing the match.
Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter is unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.
No contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "no contest", except in the case of a technical decision in the unified rules. A result can also be overturned to a no contest if the fighter that was originally victorious fails a post fight drug test for banned substances.
Clothing[edit]
Mixed martial arts promotions typically require that male fighters wear shorts in addition to beingbarechested,thus precluding the use ofgior fighting kimono to inhibit or assistsubmissionholds. Male fighters are required by most athletic commissions to wear groin protectors underneath their trunks.[69]Female fighters wearshort shortsandsports brasor other similarly snug-fitting tops. Both male and female fighters are required to wear amouthguard.[69][109]
The need for flexibility in the legs combined with durability prompted the creation of various fighting shorts brands, which then spawned a range ofmixed martial arts clothingand casual wear available to the public.[citation needed]
Fighting area[edit]
According to the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, an MMA competition or exhibition may be held in a ring or a fenced area. The fenced area can be round or have at least six sides. Cages vary: some replace the metal fencing with a net, others have a different shape from an octagon, as the term "The Octagon" is trademarked by the UFC (though the 8-sided shape itself is not trademarked).[110]The fenced area is called a cage generically, or a hexagon, an octagon or an octagon cage, depending on the shape.
-
A ring used byPRIDE. -
An octagon cage used by the UFC.
Common disciplines[edit]
Most 'traditional' martial arts have a specific focus and these arts may be trained to improve in that area. Popular disciplines of each type include:[111]
- Stand-up:Bo xing,kickbo xing,muay Thai,karate,taekwondo,capoeira,combat sambo,savateandsandaare trained to improve stand-up striking.
- Clinch:judo,freestyle wrestling,folkstyle wrestling,Greco-Roman wrestling,catch wrestling,sandaandsamboare trained to improveclinching,takedownsandthrows,whileMuay Thaiis trained to improve thestrikingaspect of the clinch.
- Ground:Brazilian jiu-jitsu,judo,sambo,folkstyle,freestyle wrestling,catch wrestling,Greco-Roman wrestlingandluta livreare trained to improve ground control and position, as well as to achievesubmission holds,and defend against them.
Most styles have been adapted from their traditional forms, such asbo xingstances, which lack effective counters to leg kicks, theMuay Thaistance, which is poor for defending against takedowns due to its static nature, andjudoorBrazilian jiu-jitsutechniques, which must be adapted for no-gi competition. It is common for a fighter to train with multiple coaches of different styles or an organized fight team to improve various aspects of their game at once.Cardiovascular conditioning,speed drills,strength trainingandflexibilityare also important aspects of a fighter's training. Some schools advertise their styles as simply "mixed martial arts", which has become a style in itself, but the training will still often be split into different sections.
While mixed martial arts was initially practiced almost exclusively by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As the sport has become more mainstream and more widely taught, it has become accessible to wider range of practitioners of all ages. Proponents of this sort of training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying levels of competitiveness and fitness.[112][113]
Brazilian jiu-jitsu[edit]
Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a form of submission grappling. It came to international prominence in the martial arts community in the early 1990s, when BJJ expertRoyce Graciewon thefirst,second,andfourthUltimate Fighting Championships, which at the time weresingle-eliminationmartial arts tournaments. Royce often fought successfully against larger opponents who practiced other styles, includingbo xing,wrestling,shoot-fighting,karate,andtaekwondo.It has since become a staple art and key component for many MMA fighters. BJJ is largely credited for bringing widespread attention to the importance ofground fighting.BJJ is primarily a ground-based fighting style that applies close rangegrapplingtechniques and usesjoint locksandchokeholdsto submit the adversary. But standup techniques can also be used such asthrows,holds,andstrikes.The BJJ applied to MMA fights is based on the no-gi practice of the martial art.[114]
Some notable fighters who are known for using BJJ skills or hold a black belt include:Alexandre Pantoja,Antônio Carlos Júnior,Amanda Nunes,Anderson Silva,Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira,Charles Oliveira,Aljamain Sterling,Cris Cyborg,Deiveson Figueiredo,Demian Maia,Fabrício Werdum,Glover Teixeira,José Aldo,Junior dos Santos,Lyoto Machida,Rafael dos Anjos,Ronaldo Souza,Vitor Belfort,Wanderlei Silva,Mackenzie Dern,Chael Sonnen,Tony Ferguson,Demetrious Johnson,Frank Mir,Georges St-Pierre,Jim Miller,B.J. Penn,Nate Diaz,Jan Błachowicz,Marlon Vera,Patrício PitbullandBrian Ortega.
Wrestling[edit]
Wrestling (includingfreestyle,Greco-Romanand Americanfolkstyle) gained tremendous respect due to its effectiveness in mixed martial arts competitions. It is widely studied by mixed martial artists as Wrestling allows competitors to control where the match will go: superior wrestlers can dominate theClinchand take their opponents into the ground with its excellenttakedowns,particularly against the legs, where they will transition intogroundfightingand can either get a superior top position and start striking their opponent (a tactic known as Ground-and-Pound)[115]or start grappling for submissions. While wrestlers with stronger striking base can use defensive wrestling to defend takedowns maintain the fight in the feet where they use their superior striking, a tactic known as "Sprawl-and-Brawl",[116]or use wrestling to escape submission attempts. It is also credited for conferring an emphasis on conditioning for explosive movement and stamina, both of which are critical in competitive mixed martial arts.
There are multiple wrestling styles around the world which MMA fighters have as their base. American fighters are usually trained infolkstylewrestling]], the style competed in high school and college competitions. Many American champions were formerNCAA Division I Wrestling Champions,such asKevin RandlemanandMark Kerr.While fighters from around the world train primarily in "international" olympic styles such asGreco-RomanandFreestyle wrestling.Some formerwrestlers who competed in the Olympicshave joined MMA competition, such asDaniel Cormier,Dan Henderson,Ben Askren,silver medalistsMatt LindlandandYoel Romero,and gold medalistHenry Cejudo.[117]Some fighters have also come from localFolk wrestlingbackgrounds, UFC flyweight championDeiveson Figueiredois trained atLuta Marajoara,a folk wrestling style fromMarajó island.[118]
Notable wrestlers who were MMA competitors include:Khabib Nurmagomedov,Chael Sonnen,Jon Jones,Johny Hendricks,Georges St-Pierre,Cain Velasquez,Chad Mendes,Randy Couture,Brock Lesnar,Mark Coleman,Frankie Edgar,Colby Covington,Kamaru Usman,Justin Gaethje,Chris Weidman,Daniel Cormier,Dan Henderson,Tito Ortiz, Ilia Topuria,Khamzat Chimaev,Tyron Woodley,Yoel Romero,Deiveson Figueiredo,Mark Schultz,Anatoly Malykhin,Jason Jackson,Ryan Bader,Johnny EblenandHenry Cejudo.
Greco-Roman[edit]
Greco-Roman wrestling is one of two styles of wrestling contested at the Olympic Games, the other being Freestyle. Greco-Roman wrestling only allows for holds above the waist and has a strong emphasis on clinch fighting. Due to the difficulty to achieve takedowns when one is not allowed to attack the legs, Greco-Roman is not utilized in MMA as often as styles that do allow fighters to attack the legs, like Freestyle and Catch. Despite this, there have been fighters who come from a background in Greco-Roman wrestling. Notable examples areRandy Couture,Dan Henderson,Mark Madsen,Matt Lindland(all four were Olympic wrestlers or Olympic alternates),Dan Severn,Jon Jones,Ilia Topuria,Alexander Volkanovski,Magomed AnkalaevandSergei Pavlovich.
Catch-as-catch-can[edit]
Catch wrestlingis the ancestor of freestyle wrestling and includes submissions which are prohibited in freestyle wrestling.[119]Widely popular around the world during the 19th and 20th centuries, catch wrestling underwent a decline as its amateur-side became olympic freestyle wrestling, while the professional side became modernprofessional wrestling.Catch survived in JapanesePuroresu-style Pro Wrestling, where wrestlers such asAntonio InokiandKarl Gotchpromoted "strong style pro wrestling", that whileworked,had realistic and full contact moves, resulting in the creation of theUniversal Wrestling FederationandShoot wrestling(which in their own turn would inspire the creation of legit proto-MMAshootfightingorganizations such asShootoandPancrase). Many pro wrestlers that trained in shoot-style would later compete in MMA, which led to resurgence of Catch with the advent of mixed martial arts in the 90s. The termno holds barredwas used originally to describe the wrestling method prevalent in catch wrestling tournaments during the late 19th century wherein no wrestling holds were banned from the competition, regardless of how dangerous they might be. The term was applied to mixed martial arts matches, especially at the advent of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.[120]
A lot of MMA fighters train in catch wrestling as their sole grappling style or as a complement to Brazilian jiu-jitsu, as it teaches techniques and tactics not found in Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[119]Notable MMA fighters who use catch wrestling as their primary grappling style include:Josh Barnett,Ken Shamrock,Frank Shamrock,Bas Rutten,Kazushi Sakuraba,Erik Paulson,Bobby Lashley,Minoru Suzuki,Masakatsu Funaki,Rumina Sato,Masakazu Imanari,Muhammad MokaevandPaul Sass.[119]
Kickbo xing[edit]
Kickbo xing,along with bo xing, are recognised as a foundation for striking in mixed martial arts, and are both widely practiced and taught. Each has different techniques. kickbo xing is a group of stand-up combat martial arts based on kicking and punching. The modern style originated in Japan, developed from Karate, and had additional development in the Netherlands and the United States. Different governing bodies apply different rules, such as allowing the use of elbows, knees, clinching or throws, etc. Notable fighters include former UFC women's strawweight championJoanna Jędrzejczyk,current UFC women's strawweight championZhang Weili,Edson Barboza,Darren Till,Anderson Silva,José Aldo,Charles Oliveira,Mauricio Rua,Wanderlei Silva,Ciryl Gane,Donald Cerrone,Jiří ProcházkaandCris Cyborg,while some kickboxers in MMA includeStephen Thompson,Mirko Cro Cop,Alistair Overeem,Israel Adesanya,Alex 'Poatan' Pereira,Sean O'Malley,Michael Page,Cory Sandhagen,Alexander Volkanovski,Volkan Oezdemir,Dricus Du PlessisandLeon Edwards.
Bo xing[edit]
Bo xingis a combat form that is widely used in MMA and is one of the primary striking bases for many fighters.[121]Bo xing punches account for the vast majority of strikes during the stand up portion of a bout and also account for the largest number of significant strikes, knock downs and KOs in MMA matches.[122]Several aspects of bo xing are extremely valuable such as footwork, combinations, and defensive techniques like slips, head movement and stance (including chin protection and keeping hands up) commonly known as the Guard position.[123]Bo xing -based fighters have also been shown to throw and land a higher volume of strikes when compared with other striking bases, at a rate of 3.88 per minute with 9.64 per minute thrown (compared with Muay Thai at 3.46 and 7.50, respectively).[121]Fighters known for using bo xing include:Petr Yan,Dustin Poirier,Conor McGregor,Max Holloway,Rob Font,Calvin Kattar,Sean Strickland,Cain Velasquez,Nick Diaz,Glover Teixeira,José Aldo,Ilia Topuria,Junior dos Santos,B.J. Penn,Dan Hardy,Shane Carwin,Jack Della Maddalena,Francis Ngannou,Alexander Gustafsson,Jamahal Hill,Justin GaethjeandAndrei Arlovski.
Luta Livre[edit]
Luta Livre(also referred to Luta LivreBrasileira,SubmissionorEsportiva) is a Braziliansubmission wrestlingstyle, developed in Brazil in the 1920s bycatch wrestlingpractitionerEuclydes "Tatu" Hatem,including techniques fromcatch wrestling,judo,wrestlingandBrazilian jiu-jitsu.Luta livre is divided in the categories ofesportiva,which is a form of submission grappling, differentiating from no-gi BJJ with its focus on quick and energetic submissions, andvale tudo,which includes strikes both standing up and on the ground in addition to grappling and submissions.[124]Luta livre was important to the development of mixed martial arts, as rivalry between jiu-jitsu and luta livre fueled thevale tudoscene. However, the success of Brazilian jiu-jitsu over luta livre practitioners, especially after theDesafio: Jiu Jitsu vs Luta Livreevent in 1991 (which was broadcast live byRede Globo), resulted in the style waning in popularity,[125]although it seems to be making a resurgence, especially as an alternative to both Brazilian jiu-jitsu and catch wrestling.[126]Some notable luta livre practitioners in MMA include:Marco Ruas,Eugenio Tadeu,José Aldo,Renato Sobral,Pedro Rizzo,Alexandre Franca Nogueira,Terry Etim,Jesus PinedoandDarren Till.
Judo[edit]
Judo is a Japanese grappling martial art which has bothne-waza(ground grappling) andtachi-waza(standing grappling), severaljudopractitioners have competed in mixed martial arts matches. They use their knowledge in judo for clinching and for doing explosive and fast takedowns which quickly transition into submission holds in the ground. However, judo is traditionally and exclusively trained using thejudogi,as such, many techniques and strategies from judo can not be translated into MMA.[127]Fighters who hold a black belt in judo includeFedor Emelianenko,Marco Ruas,Khabib Nurmagomedov,Ian Garry,Dong Hyun Kim,Cub Swanson,Don Frye,Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira,Fabricio Werdum,Vitor Belfort,Benoît Saint-Denis,Merab Dvalishvili,Reinier de Ridderand Olympian judokasRonda Rousey,[128]Hector Lombard,Rick Hawn[129]andHidehiko Yoshida.Former WEC middleweight championPaulo Filhohas credited judo for his success in an interview.[130]
Sambo[edit]
Sambo is a Russian martial art, combat sport and self-defense system.[131]It is a mixture ofjudoandfreestyle wrestlingusing akeikogiknown askurtka.Sambo focuses on throwing, takedowns, grappling, and includes submissions from judo andcatch wrestling.Sports sambo is characterized as a grappling style focused inpinningand in explosive takedowns which can be quickly transitioned into devastatingleglocks.Sambo also has a modality known ascombat sambo,which adds punches, kicks, elbows and knees, making it a proto-MMA hybrid fighting style. Sambo is popular in Russia and eastern Europe, where it is taught as a complement to judo and wrestling training, Sambo also provides a good base for MMA with all-around skills for combining grappling and striking. Some notable Sambo fighters that transitioned into MMA include:Fedor Emelianenko,Igor Vovchanchyn,Oleg Taktarov,Andrei Arlovski,Yaroslav Amosov,Khabib Nurmagomedov,Islam MakhachevandShavkat Rakhmonov.
Karate[edit]
Karateis a striking-based Japanese withOkinawanorigins martial art using punches, kicks, sometimes elbows, knees and even limited grappling. It is divided invarious schools and styles,which distinguishes techniques, training methods, among other things. Some styles, especiallyKyokushinand otherfull contactstyles, has proven to be effective in MMA as it is one of the core foundations of kickbo xing, and specializes in striking techniques.[132][133][134][135]Karate from all styles has also been a common base, with many getting introduced to martial arts and combat sports by training Karate in their youth. Various styles of karate are practiced by some MMA fighters, notablyChuck Liddell,Bas Rutten,Lyoto Machida,Stephen Thompson,John Makdessi,Uriah Hall,Ryan Jimmo,Georges St-Pierre,Kyoji Horiguchi,Giga Chikadze,Robert Whittaker,Henry Cejudo,andLouis Gaudinot.Liddell is known to have an extensive striking background inKenpō with Fabio Martella.[136]Lyoto Machida practices Shotokan Ryu,[137]and St-Pierre practicesKyokushin.[138]
Wushu Sanda[edit]
Sanda, or Sanshou, is one of the two disciplines ofsportwushu.It is a modernized and full contact version ofwushu,created in the late 20th century as a condensation of traditional Chinesekung futechniques to be used in afull contactcompetition environment.[139][140]It is a kickbo xing style which haspunching,kicking,some use of elbows andknee strikes—similar to Kickbo xing or Muay Thai— but it has the distinction of allowing a range oftakedowns,throwsandsweeps,similar to judo and wrestling.[139][141]
They can be highly effective in competition due to their mixture of striking and takedowns, which can be easily synthesized with the rest of MMA training, such as groundfighting.[141]It is prominently used by fighters from China, but it has found a following amongst many fighters around the world.[141]Chief amongst these fighters isCung Le,who is most notable for his TKO and KO victories over former UFC champions Frank Shamrock and Rich Franklin, and UFC strawweight championZhang Weili,the first Chinese champion in the UFC. Other wushu sanshou based fighters who have entered MMA includeMichael Page,Song Yadong,K. J. Noons,Pat Barry,Zhang Tiequan,[142]Muslim Salihov,[143]andZabit Magomedsharipov.[144]
Taekwondo[edit]
Taekwondo is aKorean martial art,emerging in the 1950s as a mixture between Japanese Karate, traditional Korean martial arts and some Chinese kung fu. It is a striking-based style with heavy focus on various styles of kicking, such as head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast kicking techniques.[145]Several accomplished MMA fighters have an extensive background in taekwondo, and many were introduced to martial arts through it.[146][147]Some fighters who use taekwondo techniques in MMA are former UFC lightweight champion and WEC lightweight championAnthony Pettis,who is 3rd dan black belt as well as an instructor,[148]Benson Henderson,Yair Rodriguez,Marco Ruasand former UFC middleweight championAnderson Silva,who is a 5th dan black belt.[149]
In his instructional book, Anderson Silva admitted the influence of taekwondo in the formation of his unique style. "In each of my fights, I tried to utilize techniques from all the various styles I had studied. I threw taekwondo kicks. I threw Muay Thai knees and elbows, and I used my knowledge of Brazilian jiu-jitsu on the ground."[150]Anthony Pettis has also stated that he is "definitely a traditional martial artist first and a mixed martial artist second",[148]as well as his "style of attacking is different [because of his] taekwondo background."[151]
Other notable fighters who have a base in Taekwondo or are known for using their Taekwondo skills while fighting includeEdson Barboza,Valentina Shevchenko,Cung Le,Patrick Smith,Mirko Cro Cop,Cory Sandhagen,Israel AdesanyaandConor McGregor.
Capoeira[edit]
Capoeira is anAfro-Brazilianart form that incorporates elements of martial arts, games, music, and dance. Capoeira is often practiced as a form of dancing and game, but its origins lie as a concealed style of self-defense and combat, and can be used as such. It uses a style of fighting with quick and complex maneuvers, which use power, speed, and leverage across a wide variety of kicks, spins and techniques. Pure Capoeira is difficult to use in MMA due its complexity, but many fighters incorporated individual techniques into their reportoire.[152]Additionally, Capoeira has an importance to MMA history, as many capoeiristas participated inVale Tudochallenges in Brazil against practitioners of other martial arts, in particular with a rivalry with Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[153]In 1995 at theDesafio Internacional de Vale Tudoevent, Capoeirista Mestre Hulk defeated two-time BJJ world championAmaury Bitettiusing Capoeira techniques in an underdog victory.[154]
Some fighters which have trained Capoeira and incorporated techniques includeAnderson Silva,Conor McGregor,Deiveson Figueiredo,Thiago Santos,Marco RuasandMichel Pereira.
Savate[edit]
Although not as common as other disciplines, some fighters have used Savate effectively in MMA. Savate restricts the use of shins and knees, allowing only foot kicks. It focuses on kicking more than punching, and its kicks are characteristically very fast, mobile and flexible. It also possesses a complex and evasive footwork. However, because Savatuers train wearing shoes, adjustments have to be made to how they throw kicks in MMA. Notable Savate fighters includeKarl Amoussou,Gerard Gordeau,Cheick Kongo,and former Bellator Light Heavyweight ChampionChristian M'Pumbu.
Basic strategies[edit]
The techniques utilized in mixed martial arts competition generally fall into two categories:strikingtechniques (such askicks,knees,punchesandelbows) andgrapplingtechniques (such asclinch holds,pinning holds,submission holds,sweeps,takedownsandthrows).
Today, mixed martial artists mustcross-trainin a variety of styles to counter their opponent's strengths and remain effective in all the phases of combat and have astrategy.
Sprawl-and-Brawl[edit]
Sprawl-and-Brawl is astand-up fightingtactic that consists of effective stand-up striking while avoidingground fightingtypically by usingsprawlsto defend againsttakedownsorthrows.[116]
A Sprawl-and-Brawler is usually aboxer,kickboxer,orkaratekawho has trained in various styles ofwrestling,judo,and/orsamboto avoid takedowns to keep the fight standing. This is a form which is heavily practiced in the amateur leagues.
These fighters will often studysubmission wrestlingto avoid being forced into submission should they find themselves on the ground. This style can be deceptively different from traditional kickbo xing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques to incorporatetakedownandground fightingdefense. A few notable examples areIgor Vovchanchyn,Mirko Filipović,Chuck Liddell,Mark Huntand more recentlyJunior dos Santos,Justin Gaethje,Andrei Arlovski,[155]andJoanna Jędrzejczyk.[156]
Ground-and-pound[edit]
Ground-and-pound is a strategy consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using atakedownor throw, obtaining a top, ordominant grappling position,and then striking the opponent repeatedly, primarily with fists,hammerfists,and elbows. Ground-and-pound is also used as a precursor to attemptingsubmissionholds.
The style is used by fighters well-versed in submission defense and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits or isknocked out.Although not a traditional style of striking, the effectiveness and reliability of ground-and-pound has made it a popular tactic. It was first demonstrated as an effective technique byMark Coleman,then popularized by fighters such asChael Sonnen,Glover Teixeira,Don Frye,Frank Trigg,Jon Jones,Cheick Kongo,Mark Kerr,Frank Shamrock,Tito Ortiz,Matt Hughes,Chris Weidman,andKhabib Nurmagomedov.[115]
While most fighters use ground-and-pound statically, by way of holding their opponents down and mauling them with short strikes from the top position, a few fighters manage to utilize it dynamically by striking their opponents while changing positions, thus not allowing their opponents to settle once they take them down.Cain Velasquezis one of the most devastating ground strikers in MMA and is known for continuing to strike his opponents on the ground while transitioning between positions.[157]Fedor Emelianenko,considered among the greatest masters of ground-and-pound in MMA history, was the first to demonstrate this dynamic style of striking in transition. He was striking his opponents on the ground while passingguard,or while his opponents were attempting to recover guard.[158][159]
In the year 2000, MMA play-by-play commentatorStephen Quadroscoined the popular phraselay and pray.This refers to a situation where a wrestler or grappler keeps another fighter pinned or controlled on the mat to avoid a stand up, yet exhibits little urgency to finish the grounded opponent with a knockout or a submission for the majority or entirety of the fight.[160]The implication of "lay and pray" is that after the wrestler/grappler takes the striker down and 'lays' on him to neutralize the opponent's striking weapons, he 'pray's that the referee does not return them to the standing position. This style is considered by many fans as the most boring style of fighting and is highly criticized for intentionally creating non-action, yet it is effective. Some argue that 'lay-and-pray' is justified and that it is the responsibility of the downed fighter to be able to protect himself from this legitimate fighting technique.[160][161][162][163]Many considerJon Fitch's style to epitomize 'lay and pray'.[164]FormerUFCWelterweight championGeorges St-Pierrehas been criticized by fans for playing it safe and applying the lay-and-pray tactic in his fights,[165]as has formerBellator MMAWelterweight championBen Askren,who justified the tactic, explaining that championship fights are much harder, as they are five rounds long compared with the usual three.[166]
Submission-seeking[edit]
Submission-seeking is a reference to the strategy of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown orthrowand then applying asubmission hold,forcing the opponent tosubmit.While grapplers will often work to attain dominant position, some may be more comfortable fighting from other positions. It enable fighters to force opponents into submission through joint locks or chokes. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) plays a significant role in MMA submission grappling, with techniques like armbars, triangles, rear-naked chokes, guillotines, and kimuras being commonly utilized.[167]
If a grappler finds themselves unable to force a takedown, they may resort topullingguard,whereby they physically pull their opponent into a dominant position on the ground.[168]This was one of the first fighting styles that had shown success, popularized by BJJ exponentRoyce Gracieduring early UFC events. Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notablyBrazilian jiu-jitsu,catch wrestling,judo,sambo,luta livreandshoot wrestling.Submission-based styles were popularized in the early UFC events byRoyce GracieandKen Shamrock,and were the dominant tactic in the early UFCs. Modern proponents of the submission-seeking style, such asDemian Maia,Ronaldo Souza,Charles Oliveira,Ryan Hall,Marcin Held,andPaul Craigtend to come from aBrazilian jiu-jitsubackground.[169]
Clinch-fighting[edit]
Clinch-Fighting is a tactic consisting of using aclinch holdto prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while also attempting takedowns or throws andstrikingthe opponent usingknees,stomps,elbows,andpunches.The clinch is often utilized by wrestlers and judokas that have added components of the striking game (typically bo xing ), andMuay Thaifighters.
Ken Shamrockwas known for his impressive clinch work when he submittedDan Severnwith a standing guillotine choke atUFC 6
Wrestlers and judoka may use clinch fighting as a way to neutralize the superior striking skills of a stand-up fighter to prevent takedowns or throws by a superior ground fighter.Ronda Rousey,with herjudobackground, is considered a master at initiating throws from the clinch to set uparmbars.[170]
The clinch or "plum" of aMuay Thaifighter is often used to improve the accuracy ofkneesandelbowsby physically controlling the position of the opponent.Anderson Silvais well known for his devastating Muay Thai clinch. He defeated UFC middle weight championRich Franklinusing the Muay Thai clinch and kneeing Franklin repeatedly to the body and face – breaking Franklin's nose. In their rematch Silva repeated this and won again.[171]
Other fighters may use the clinch to push their opponent against the cage or ropes, where they can effectively control their opponent's movement and restrict mobility while striking them with punches to the body or stomps also known asdirty bo xingor "Wall and Maul".Randy Coutureused hisGreco-Roman wrestlingbackground to popularize this style en route to six title reigns in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.[172]
Score-oriented fighting[edit]
Especially used by fighters with strongwrestlingbackground when facing a highly skilled grappler, or by wrestlers who preferstand-up fights.Usually fighters who adopt this strategy use takedowns only forscoring,allowing the adversary to stand up and continue the fight. They also want to land clear strikes and control the octagon. In order to win the fight by decision all score oriented fighters have to have strong defensive techniques and avoid takedowns.[173]
In general, fighters who cannot win fights through lightning offense, or are more suited to win fights in the later rounds or via decision are commonly known asgrinders.Grinders aim to shut down their opponent's game plan and chip away at them via clinching, smothering and ground-and-pound for most of the rounds. Prominent examples of grinders arePat Healy,[174]Chael Sonnen,[175]andColby Covington.
Women's mixed martial arts[edit]
While mixed martial arts is primarily a male dominated sport, it does have female athletes. Female competition in Japan includes promotions such as the all-femaleValkyrie,andJewels(formerly known asSmackgirl).[176]However historically there has been only a select few major professional mixed martial arts organizations in theUnited Statesthat invite women to compete. Among those areStrikeforce,Bellator Fighting Championships,the all femaleInvicta Fighting Championships,and the now defunctEliteXC.[citation needed]
There has been a growing awareness of women in mixed martial arts due to popular female fighters and personalities such asMegumi Fujii,Miesha Tate,Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos,Ronda Rousey,Joanna Jędrzejczyk,Holly HolmandGina Caranoamong others. Carano became known as "the face of women's MMA" after appearing in a number ofEliteXCevents. This was furthered by her appearances on MGM Television's 2008 revival of their game showAmerican Gladiators.[citation needed]Additionally, U.S. CongresswomanSharice Davids(D-KS-3), elected in2018,is a former professional MMA fighter.
History[edit]
In Japan, female competition has been documented since the mid-1990s. Influenced by female professional wrestling andkickbo xing,the Smackgirl competition was formed in 2001 and became the only major all-female promotion in mixed martial arts. Other early successful Japanese female organizations includedLadies Legend Pro-Wrestling,ReMix (a predecessor to Smackgirl), U-Top Tournament, K-Grace, and AX.[citation needed]
Aside from all-female organizations, most major Japanese male dominated promotions have held select female competitions. These have includedDEEP,MARS, Gladiator, HEAT, Cage Force,K-1,Sengoku,Shooto(under the name G-Shooto), andPancrase(under the name Pancrase Athena).[citation needed]
In the United States, prior to the success ofThe Ultimate Fighterreality show that launched mixed martial arts into the mainstream media,[citation needed]there was no major coverage of female competitions. Some early organizations who invited women to compete included, International Fighting Championships, SuperBrawl,King of the Cage,Rage in the Cage, Ring of Combat, Bas Rutten Invitational, and HOOKnSHOOT. From the mid-2000s, more coverage came when organizations such asStrikeforce,EliteXC,Bellator Fighting Championships,andShark Fightsinvited women to compete.
Outside Japan and the United States, female competition is almost exclusively found in minor local promotions. However, in Europe some major organizations have held select female competitions, includingIt's Showtime,Shooto Europe,Cage Warriors,andM-1 Global.
Following Zuffa's acquisition of Strikeforce in March 2011,[177][178][179][180]the UFC began promoting women's fights, with Ronda Rousey rapidly becoming one of the promotion's biggest draws.[181]
Controversy arose in 2013, when CFA (Championship Fighting Alliance) fighterFallon Foxcame out as atransgenderwoman. The case became a centerpiece of debates concerning whether it was fair to have a transgender woman compete againstcisgenderwomen in a contact sport.[182]Neither the UFC nor Invicta FC says they will allow her to fight, and then-UFC Bantamweight champion Ronda Rousey said she would not fight her.[183]
Amateur mixed martial arts[edit]
Amateur Mixed Martial Arts is theamateur versionof the Mixed Martial Arts in which participants engage largely or entirely without remuneration. Under theInternational Mixed Martial Arts Federation(IMMAF) and World MMA Association (WMMAA), it is practiced within a safe and regulated environment which relies on a fair and objective scoring system and competition procedures similar to those in force in theprofessional Mixed Martial Arts rules.[184][185] Amateur MMA is practiced with board shorts and with approved protection gear that includes shin protectors, and amateurMMA gloves.
The International Mixed Martial Arts Federation and the World Mixed Martial Arts Association announced an amalgamation on April 11, 2018, uniting the two organisations behind one bid for Olympic sport recognition after being instructed by Global Association of International Sport Federations (GAISF). The WMMAA and the IMMAF signed a legally binding affiliationmemorandum of understanding(MOU) in May 2018 and finalized the agreement by November 2018, along with the first unfiied world championships.[186][187]
The Global Association of Mixed Martial Arts (GAMMA) was established in 2018 by former WMMAA and IMMAF federations and representatives.[188][189]From 8 to 12 March 2024, mixed martial arts was included as a demonstration sport in the 2023 African Games in Accra, Ghana, under GAMMA[190][191][192][193].From 11 to 13 July 2024, GAMMA member federations participated in the 2nd Asian Mixed Martial Arts Championships organised by the Asian Mixed Martial Arts Association (AMMA) under the Olympic Council of Asia[194].
World Mixed Martial Arts Association[edit]
World Mixed Martial Arts Association (WMMAA) was founded in 2012 in Monaco byM-1 Globalcommercial promoters and is under the leadership of the General Secretary Alexander Endelgarth, President Finkelstein and Fedor Emelianenko.[195][196][197][198]The World MMA Association was an organization that managed and developed mixed martial arts, establishing rules and procedures, hosting MMA competitions.
On October 20, 2013, the first World MMA Championship was held in Saint Petersburg, Russia.[199]
By December 2013, WMMAA had 38 member states, representing the sport and registered in accordance with national laws.. In 2017, WMMAA had expanded to 83 members: Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Colombia, Czech Republic, France, Guatemala, Georgia, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Serbia, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Venezuela.[200]
International Mixed Martial Arts Federation[edit]
On February 29, 2012, the International Mixed Martial Arts Federation (IMMAF) was set up to bring international structure, development and support to mixed martial arts worldwide.[201]IMMAF launched with support of market leader, theUltimate Fighting Championship (UFC).[202][203]The IMMAF is a non-profit, democratic federation organized according to international federation standards to ensure that MMA as a sport is allowed the same recognition, representation and rights as all other major sports. The IMMAF is registered under Swedish law and is founded on democratic principles, as outlined in their statutes.[204]As of March 2015, there are 39 total members from 38[205]countries, which come from Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, India, Ireland (Northern Ireland), Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Lithuania, Malaysia, Nepal, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Romania, The Seychelles, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.[205]
The IMMAF held its first Amateur World Championships in Las Vegas, US, from June 30 to July 6, 2014.[206][207][208]
Global Association of Mixed Martial Arts (GAMMA)[edit]
GAMMA was founded in 2018 as the international governing body for mixed martial arts, with the support of main sponsorONE Championship[188][189].It aims are to achieve official international sport recognition for mixed martial arts, to develop the sport and its governance structures globally and promote its growth and benefits in communities worldwide. Its vision is Olympic Games inclusion[209][210][211].GAMMA is a non-profit organisation registered in the Netherlands with Alexander Engelhardt as president[212].GAMMA has 80 national federations as members across 5 continents[213]and organises international, nations tournaments around the world under amateur MMA rules[214][215][216][217].In 2024, GAMMA achieved the inclusion of mixed martial arts as a demonstration discipline in the 2023 African Games in Accra[190][191][192][193].
Safety[edit]
Mixed Martial Arts competitions have changed dramatically since the first Ultimate Fighting Championship in 1993, specifically with the inception of theUnified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.There remains a paucity of data on injuries that occur in MMA, and resulting concerns with regard to MMA's safety remain. A 2014 systematic review concluded that the injury incidence rate in MMA appears to be greater than in most, if not all, other popular and commonly practiced combat sports.[218]
Injury rates[edit]
In a 2014 meta-analysis of the available injury data in MMA, the injury incidence rate was estimated to be 228.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures (one athlete-exposure is defined as one athlete participating in a single fight).[218]The estimated injury incidence rate in MMA is greater than in other full-contact combat sports such asjudo(44.0 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[219]taekwondo(79.4 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[220]amateur bo xing(77.7 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures),[221]andprofessional bo xing(118.0–250.6 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures).[222][223][224][225]
Injury pattern[edit]
In general, the injury pattern in MMA is very similar to that in professional bo xing but unlike that found in other combat sports such as judo and taekwondo.[218]The most commonly injured body region is the head (66.8% to 78.0% of reported injuries) followed by the wrist/hand (6.0% to 12.0% of reported injuries), while the most frequent types of injury were laceration (36.7% to 59.4% of reported injuries), fracture (7.4% to 43.3% of reported injuries), and concussion (3.8% to 20.4% of reported injuries).[218]The frequency of impact to the ear and low utilization of ear protection leads to a high frequency of perichondral hematoma that can lead tocauliflower ear.[226]
Brain injury and CTE[edit]
Knocking a person unconscious or even causing aconcussionmay cause permanentbrain damage.[227]There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.[228]Also, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease calledchronic traumatic encephalopathy,abbreviated CTE. This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased. In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE.[229][230][231][232][233][234]
Because the disease is detected post-mortem, and MMA are relatively young, there are still few cases of CTE recognized in MMA, although there are more and more suspected and confirmed cases of CTE.[235][236]In preliminary results reported in April 2012 as part of an ongoing study of a 109 professional boxers and MMA fighters being conducted by Charles Bernick and his colleagues at Cleveland Clinic's Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, fighters with more than six years of ring experience were observed to have reductions in size in their hippocampus and thalamus, while fighters with more than twelve years of ring experience were observed to have both reductions in size and symptoms such as memory loss (the hippocampus and thalamus deal with memory and alertness). Bernick speculates that the cumulative damage over time from lesser blows may eventually prove an even more important topic of study than that of infrequent concussions.[237]
In January 2021, veteran UFC fighter Spencer Fisher confirmed to MMA Fighting that he suffered from all the symptoms of CTE: "I'm just beat up, and it's just gotten worse, like all my injuries are catching up with me now, aside from the brain thing, which is the biggest one, because it adds, it adds the depression, and putting things, thoughts together and staying on track". Later, Dana White ruled on this: "He's not the first and he's definitely not going to be the last. This is a contact sport and anybody who's ever done this younger, myself included, is dealing with brain issues. It's part of the gig".[238]In late 2021, Rose Gracie, daughter of UFC founder Rorion Gracie, in an interview about CTE on the MMA Fighting podcast, calls lack of CTE awareness in MMA 'criminal negligence'.[239]
Fatalities[edit]
There have been seven known deaths in MMA to date.[240][failed verification] There were no documented cases of deaths after a sanctioned MMA event prior to 2007.[241]
Since 2007, there have been six fatalities in mixed martial arts matches. The first was the death ofSam Vasquezon November 30, 2007.[242]Vasquez collapsed shortly after being knocked out by Vince Libardi in the third round of an October 20, 2007, fight at theToyota Centerin Houston, Texas.[241]Vasquez had two separate surgeries to remove blood clots from his brain, and shortly after the second operation suffered a stroke and did not regain consciousness.[242]
The second death stemming from a sanctioned mixed martial arts contest occurred in South Carolina on June 28, 2010, when 30-year-old Michael Kirkham was knocked out and never regained consciousness. He was pronounced dead two days after the fight.[243]
The third death on August 11, 2012, involved 30 year old Tyrone Mims, who was making his amateur MMA debut at "Conflict MMA: Fight Night at the Point VI" in South Carolina, making his the second MMA-related death in the state.[244]After being TKO'd in the second round of the fight he became unresponsive and was taken to Medical University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead one hour later. No evidence of brain trauma or concussion was found and the initial autopsy has proved inconclusive. Coroner Rae Wooten explained that his death may likely have been from an irregular heartbeat caused by over exertion; however whether or not his death was a direct result of his fight remains a mystery.[245]
On February 27, 2014, 29-year-old Booto Guylain was transported to Johannesburg General Hospital to be treated for swelling and bleeding on the brain after suffering a KO loss via elbow in the last round of his fight in South African promotion "Extreme Fighting Championship Africa". He was unable to make a recovery, and after one week in the hospital he was pronounced dead.[246][247]
On April 9, 2016, 28-year-oldJoão Carvalho,died following a Total Extreme Fighting event at the National Stadium in Dublin (Ireland). The Portuguese fighter was beaten by technical knockout in a fight on 9 April 2016 againstCharlie Ward,and fell ill twenty minutes after the fight. He was taken immediately to Beaumont hospital, where he underwent emergency brain surgery, but died two days later.[248]
On July 15, 2017, after a TKO loss resulting from unanswered punches in the second round of his fight, 37 year old Donshay White became unresponsive and collapsed in his locker room and was rushed to the KentuckyOne Health Sts. Mary & Elizabeth Hospital in Kentucky.[249]He was soon pronounced dead and was revealed to be caused by hypertensive/atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.[250]
Another death occurred in the UK on 17 November 2019 when 26-year-old Saeideh Aletaha died in hospital after being knocked out in the third round of a contest at Central Hall in Southampton that was part of the Fast and Furious fight series.[251]
Legality of professional competitions[edit]
See also[edit]
- Bo xing (disambiguation)
- List of current mixed martial arts champions
- List of female mixed martial artists
- List of male mixed martial artists
- List of undefeated mixed martial artists
- List of mixed martial artists with the most sanctioned fights
- List of mixed martial arts attendance records
- Mixed martial arts competition for children
- U-Kei (martial arts)
Notes[edit]
- ^Prior to the widespread adoption of mixed martial arts, or MMA, as the name of the sport, multiple other names were used to refer to what is now known as "MMA". Early in the sport's history, it was typically referred to in theUnited StatesandBrazilas "No Holds Barred", or "NHB", (United States)[1]and "Vale Tudo"(Brazil).[2]Two of the earliest MMA promotion companies inJapan,ShootoandPancrase,referred to the sport as "Shooting" (Shooto)[3][4]and "Hybrid Wrestling" (Pancrase),[5]respectively. The sport is also commonly referred to colloquially as "ultimate fighting",[6]"shootfighting",[7]and "cage fighting";[8]it was often referred to derisively in the United States as "human cockfighting".[9]
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In addition to producing professional Pancrase competitors who are known as Pancraseism (captain/ Kiuma Kunioku); Pancrase Inagakigumi(captain / Katsuomi Inagaki); Pancrase GRABAKA (captain/ Sanae Kikuta); Pancrase Mission(captain / Minoru Suzuki); Pancrase Megaton(captain/ Keigo Takamori). Pancrase Organization has its own gyms in Japan which is called P's LAB with plans to establish additional Pancrase amateur gyms and also to spread Hybrid Wrestling around the world.
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