Mizrahi Jews

Not to be confused withMizraim.

For other entities and people named "Mizrachi", seeMizrachi (disambiguation).

"Oriental Jews" redirects here. For other uses, seeJews of the Orient.

Mizrahi Jews

יהודים מזרחים‎
Total population
4.6 million (2018)
Regions with significant populations
Israel	3,200,000
France	330,000
United States	300,000+
Russia	30,000+
Azerbaijan	11,000–20,000
Uzbekistan	12,000
Iran	8,500
United Kingdom	7,000+
India	~4,800
Canada	3,500
Georgia	3,000
Turkey	3,000
Argentina	2,000
Languages
Traditional: Hebrew,Assyrian Neo-Aramaic,Bukharian,Judaeo-Arabic,Judeo-Berber,Judaeo-Aramaic,Judaeo-Malayalam,Judaeo-Marathi,Judaeo-Georgian,Judaeo-Tat,Judaeo-Iranian(Judaeo-Persian),Judeo-Urdu,Syriac Modern: Israeli Hebrew,Mizrahi Hebrew(liturgical),French,English,Russian,Arabic,Georgian,TurkishandAzerbaijani
Religion
Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Sephardic Jews,Ashkenazi Jews,otherJewish ethnic divisionsandSamaritans;variousMiddle Eastern ethnic groups

Mizrahi Jews(Hebrew:יהודי המִזְרָח), also known asMizrahim(מִזְרָחִים) orMizrachi(מִזְרָחִי) and alternatively referred to asOrientalJewsorEdot HaMizrach(עֲדוֹת־הַמִּזְרָח,lit. 'Communities of the East'),are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping ofJewish communitiesthat lived in theMuslim world. Mizrahiis a political sociological term that was coined with the creation of theState of Israel.It translates as "Easterner" in Hebrew.The termMizrahiis almost exclusively applied to descendants of Jewish communities fromNorth AfricaandAsia;in this classification are the descendants ofMashriqiJews who had lived in Middle Eastern countries, such asYemenite Jews,Iranian Jews,Kurdish Jews,Turkish Jews,Egyptian Jews,Syrian Jews,Lebanese Jews,Iraqi Jews,Jordanian Jews,Saudi Arabian Jews,Emirati Jews,Kuwaiti Jews,Bahraini Jews,Qatari Jews,Omani Jews;as well as the descendants ofMaghrebi Jewswho had lived in North African countries, such asAlgerian Jews,Libyan Jews,Moroccan Jews,andTunisian Jews.These various Jewish communities were first officially grouped into a singular identifiable division duringWorld War II,when they were distinctly outlined in theOne Million Planof theJewish Agency for Israel,which detailed the methods by which Jews of the diaspora were to be returned to the Land of Israel (then under theBritish Mandate for Palestine) afterthe Holocaust.

Mizrahialso includes Jewish communities from other Muslim-majority countries, includingIranian Jews,Afghan Jews,Bukharian JewsfromUzbekistan,KazakhstanandTajikistan,and theMountain JewsfromAzerbaijanandDagestan.While these communities have traditionally spokenJudaeo-Iranian languagessuch asJuhuriandBukhori,some of their descendants are also widely fluent inRussiandue to most ofthose countries' former statusas republics of theSoviet Union.

An earlier cultural community of southern and eastern Jews were theSephardi Jews.Before the establishment of theState of Israelin 1948, the various current communities of Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a distinctive Jewish subgroup,and many considered themselves Sephardis, as they largely followed theSephardic customs and traditionsofJudaismwith local variations inminhagim.The original Sephardi Jewish community was formed inSpainandPortugal,and after theirexpulsion in 1492,many Sephardim settled in areas where Mizrahi communities already existed.This complicated ethnography has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in official Israeli ethnic and religious terminology, withSephardibeing used in a broad sense to include Middle Eastern and North African Jews, as well as Sephardim proper fromSouthern Europearound theMediterranean Basin.TheChief Rabbinate of Israelhas placedrabbisof Mizrahi origin in Israel under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi chief rabbis.

Following theFirst Arab–Israeli War,over 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews wereexpelled or evacuated from Arab and Muslim-majority countriesbetween 1948 and the early 1980s.A 2018 statistic found that 45% of Jewish Israelis identified as either Mizrahi orSephardic.

Terminology

Mizrahiis literally translated as 'Oriental', 'Eastern',מזרח‎Mizraḥ,Hebrew for 'east'. In the past, the wordMizrahim,corresponding to the Arabic wordMashriqiyyun(Arabic:مشريقيون,'Easterners'), referred to the natives of Turkey, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North Africa (Maghribiyyun). In medieval and early modern times, the corresponding Hebrew wordma'arav(מערב) was used for North Africa. In Talmudic andGeonictimes, however, this wordma'aravreferred to the land of Israel, as contrasted withBabylonia.For this reason, manyobject to the use ofMizrahito include Moroccan and other North African Jews.

In the past, the origin of the termMizrahiwas in the Hebrew translationofEastern European Jews' German nameOstjuden,as seen inthe Mizrahi Movement,Bank Mizrahiand inHaPoel HaMizrahi.During the 1940s, before Israel's establishment, the demographerRoberto Bachiused the categories of "Mizrahim" and "Ashkenzim"in hisethnic classificationof theYishuv.In the 1950s, the Jews who came from the communities listed above were simply called and known as Jews (Yahud,يهودin Arabic) and to distinguish them in the Jewish sub-ethnicities, Israeli officials, who themselves were mostly Eastern European Jews, transferred the name to them, though most of these immigrants arrived from lands located further westward than Central Europe.Mizrahi is subsequently among the surnames most often changed by Israelis,and many scholars, includingAvshalom Kor,claim that the transferring of the nameMizrahimwas a form ofOrientalismtowards the Oriental Jews, similar to the ways in whichWestjudenhad labeledOstjudenas "second class" and excluded them from possible positions of power.

The usage of the termMizrahimorEdot Hamizraḥ(עדות־המזרח), Oriental communities, grew in Israel under the circumstances of the meeting of waves of Jewish immigrants from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, followers of Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Temani (Yemenite) rites. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, many of them Arabic-speaking Muslim-majority countries. The term came to be widely used more by Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation.

Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate Jewish subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves asSephardi,as they follow thecustoms and traditionsofSephardi Judaism(but with some differences among theminhag"customs" of particular communities). That has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in Israel and in religious usage, with "Sephardi" being used in a broad sense and including Mizrahi Jews, North African Jews as well as Sephardim proper. From the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, anyrabbisof Mizrahi origin in Israel are under the jurisdiction of theSephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel.

Sami Michaelrejects the termsMizrahimandEdot HaMizrach,claiming it is a fictitious identity advanced byMapaito preserve a "rival" to theAshkenazimand help them push theMizrahimbelow in the social-economic ladder and behind them, so they won't ever be in line with the Israeli elites of European Jewish descent.He also speaks against the Mapai manner of labeling all the Oriental Jews as "one folk" and erasing their unique and individual history as separated communities; he says that he wonders why the real Easterners of his time who were the Eastern European Jewish peasants from the villages weren't labeled as "Mizrahi" in Israel, despite fitting it more than the Oriental Jews who were labeled that way. Michael is also against the inclusion of Oriental Jewish communities who do not descend fromSepharadic Jews,as "Sepharadim" by the Israeli politicians, calling it "historically inaccurate". He also claims that his work as an author is always referred to as "Ethnic", while European Jews' work, even if historic in theme, is not, as a result of racism.

The Westerners street in Jerusalem, Israel; coined after the Maghrebi Jews

Most of the "Mizrahi" activists actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called "Westerners" (Maghrebi), rather than "Easterners" (Mashreqi). The Jews who emigrated to Palestine from North Africa in the 19th Century and prior started their own political and religious organization in 1860 which operated inJerusalemwas called "The Western Jewish Diaspora Council"(Hebrew:ועד העדה המערבית בירושלים). Many Jews originated from Arab and Muslim countries today rejectMizrahi(or any) umbrella description, and prefer to identify themselves by their particular country of origin, or that of their immediate ancestors, such as "Moroccan Jew", or prefer to use the old termSephardiin its broader meaning.

Religious rite designations

See also:Sephardic law and customs

Today, many identify non-Ashkenazi rite Jews as Sephardi – in modern HebrewSfaradim– mi xing ancestral origin and religious rite. This broader definition of "Sephardim" as including all, or most, Mizrahi Jews is also common in Jewish religious circles. During the past century, the Sephardi rite absorbed part of the unique rite of theYemenite Jews,and lately,Beta Israelreligious leaders in Israel have also joined Sefardi rite collectivities,especially following rejection of their Jewishness by some Ashkenazi circles.

The reason for this classification of all Mizrahim under Sephardi rite is that most Mizrahi communities use much the same religious rituals as Sephardim proper due to historical reasons. The prevalence of the Sephardi rite among Mizrahim is partially a result of Sephardim proper joining some of Mizrahi communities following the 1492Alhambra Decree,which expelled Jews fromSepharad(SpainandPortugal). Over the last few centuries, the previously distinctive rites of the Mizrahi communities were influenced, superimposed upon or altogether replaced by the rite of the Sephardim, perceived as more prestigious. Even before this assimilation, the original rite of many Jewish Oriental communities was already closer to the Sephardi rite than to the Ashkenazi one. For this reason, "Sephardim" has come to mean not only "Spanish Jews" proper but "Jews of the Spanish rite", just as "Ashkenazim"is used for" Jews of the German rite ", whether or not their families originate in Germany.

Many of the Sephardi Jews exiled from Spain resettled in greater or lesser numbers in theArab world,such as Syria and Morocco. In Syria, most eventually intermarried with, and assimilated into, the larger established communities ofMusta'rabimand Mizrahim. In some North African countries, such as Morocco, Sephardi Jews came in greater numbers, and so largely contributed to the Jewish settlements that the pre-existing Jews were assimilated by the more recently arrived Sephardi Jews. Either way, this assimilation, combined with the use of the Sephardi rite, led to the popular designation and conflation of most non-Ashkenazi Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa as "Sephardi rite", whether or not they were descended from Spanish Jews, which is what the terms "Sephardi Jews" and "Sfaradim" properly implied when used in the ethnic as opposed to the religious sense.

In some Arabic countries, such as Egypt and Syria, Sephardi Jews arrived via theOttoman Empirewould distinguish themselves from the already established Musta'rabim, while in others, such as Morocco and Algeria, the two communities largely intermarried, with the latter embracing Sephardi customs and thus forming a single community.

Language

Arabic

Further information:Judeo-Arabic languages

In theArab world(such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria and Iraqi Kurdistan), Mizrahim most often speakArabic.Most of the many notable philosophical, religious and literary works of the Jews in Spain, North Africa and Asia were written in Arabic using a modifiedHebrew Alpha bet.

Aramaic

Children in a Jewish school inBaghdad,1959

Aramaicis a Semitic language subfamily. Specific varieties of Aramaic are identified as "Jewish languages"since they are the languages of major Jewish texts such as theTalmudandZohar,and many ritual recitations such as theKaddish.Traditionally, Aramaic has been a language of Talmudic debate inyeshivot,as many rabbinic texts are written in a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic. The currentHebrew Alpha bet,known as "Assyrian lettering" or "the square script", was in fact borrowed from Aramaic.

InKurdistan,a region which includes parts ofTurkey,Syria,IraqandIran,the language of the Mizrahim is a variant of Aramaic.As spoken by theKurdish Jews,Judeo-Aramaic languagesareNeo-Aramaic languagesdescended fromJewish Babylonian Aramaic.They are related to the Christian Aramaic dialects spoken byAssyrian people,which areSyriac Christianswhoclaim descent from Assyria,one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancientMesopotamia.

Persian and other languages and dialects

Among other languages associated with Mizrahim areJudeo-Iranian languagessuch asJudeo-Persian,theBukhori dialect,Judeo-Tat,andKurdish languages;Georgian;Judeo-MarathiandJudeo-Malayalam.MostPersian Jewsspeak standardPersian,as do many other Jews from Iran, Afghanistan, andBukhara(Uzbekistan).Some of their descendants are also widely fluent inRussiandue to several ofthose countries' former statusas republics of theSoviet Union.

History

Main articles:Jewish diaspora,History of the Jews under Muslim rule,andIslamic–Jewish relations

TheJewish diasporain theMiddle Eastoutside theLand of Israelstarted in the 6th century BCE, during theBabylonian captivity,which also caused some Jews to flee to Egypt.Other early diaspora areas in the Middle East and North Africa werePersia,YemenandCyrene.

AsIslamstarted to spread in the 7th century CE, Jews who were living under Muslim rule becamedhimmis.Because Jews were seen as "People of the Book",they were allowed to practice their own religion, but they had an inferior status in an Islamic society.Even though Jews in the Middle East and North Africa formed strong attachments to the areas in which they lived,they were seen as a community which was clearly distinct from other communities.For example, whileMusta'arabi Jewsin the Arab world were influenced by the local culture, e.g. they started speaking variants of the Arabic languageand ate their own versions of the same food,they did not adopt Arab identity. Instead, Jews in the Arab world saw themselves (including the ones with family background of converts) and were seen as fundamentally a part of the wider collective of the Jewish people, and they maintained their identity as the descendants of the ancientIsraelitetribes.

Some Mizrahim migrated toIndia,Central Asia,and theCaucasus.

Post-1948 dispersal

Main articles:Mizrahi Jews in IsraelandJewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries

After the establishment of the State of Israel and subsequent1948 Arab–Israeli War,most Mizrahim were either expelled by their Arab rulers or chose to leave and emigrated to Israel.According to the 2009 Statistical Abstract of Israel, 50.2% of Israeli Jews are of Mizrahi or Sephardi origin.

Anti-Jewish actions by Arab governments in the 1950s and 1960s, in the context of the founding of the State of Israel, led to the departure of large numbers of Mizrahi Jews from the Middle East and North Africa.The exodus of 25,000 Mizrahi Jews from Egypt after the 1956Suez Crisisled to the overwhelming majority of Mizrahim leaving Arab countries.They becamerefugees.Most went to Israel. Many Moroccan and Algerian Jews went to France. Thousands of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jews emigrated to the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and other countries in the Americas.

Today, as many as 40,000 Mizrahim still remain in communities scattered throughout the non-ArabMuslim world,primarily in Iran, but also Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkey.There are few Maghrebim remaining in the Arab world. About 3,000 remain in Morocco and 1,100 in Tunisia.Other countries with remnants of ancient Jewish communities with official recognition, such as Lebanon, have 100 or fewer Jews. A trickle of emigration continues, mainly to Israel and the United States.

Memorialization in Israel

9 May 2021, the first physical memorialization in Israel of the Departure and Expulsion of Jews from Arab land and Iran was placed on the Sherover Promenade in Jerusalem. It is titled the Departure and Expulsion Memorial following the Knesset law for the annual recognition of the Jewish experience held annually on 30 November.

Jewish Departure and Expulsion Memorial from Arab Lands and Iran on the Sherover Promenade, Jerusalem

The text on the Memorial reads;

"With the birth of the State of Israel, over 850,000 Jews were forced from Arab Lands and Iran. The desperate refugees were welcomed by Israel.

By Act of the Knesset: 30 Nov, annually, is the Departure and Expulsion Memorial Day. Memorial donated by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, With support from the World Sephardi Federation, City of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Foundation "

The sculpture is the interpretive work of Sam Philipe, a fifth generation Jerusalemite.

Absorption into Israeli society

Refuge in Israel was not without its tragedies: "In a generation or two, millennia of rooted Oriental civilization, unified even in its diversity", had been wiped out, writes Mizrahi scholarElla Shohat.The trauma of rupture from their countries of origin was further complicated by the difficulty of the transition upon arrival in Israel; Mizrahi immigrants and refugees were placed in rudimentary and hastily erected tent cities (ma'abarot) often in development towns on the peripheries of Israel. Settlement inmoshavim(cooperative farming villages) was only partially successful, because Mizrahim had historically filled a niche ascraftsmenand merchants and most did not traditionally engage in farmwork. As the majority left their property behind in their home countries as they journeyed to Israel, many suffered a severe decrease in their socio-economic status aggravated by their cultural and political differences with the dominant Ashkenazi community. Furthermore, a policy ofausteritywas enforced at that time due to economic hardships.

Mizrahi immigrants arrived speaking many languages:

• many, especially those fromNorth Africaand theFertile Crescent,spoke Arabic dialects;
• those from Iran spokePersianand various Judeo-Iranian languages;
• Mountain Jewsfrom Azerbaijan and Dagestan spoke Judeo-Tat;
• Baghdadi Jewsfrom India spoke English;
• Bukharian Jewsfrom Uzbekistan and Tajikistan spoke the Bukhori dialect;
• theMalabar JewsfromKerala,India,arrived speakingJudeo-Malayalam.
• theBene IsraelfromMaharashtra,India, arrived speaking Marathi.

Mizrahim from elsewhere brought Georgian,Judaeo-Georgianand various other languages with them. Hebrew had historically been a language only of prayer for most Jews not living in Israel, including the Mizrahim. Thus, with their arrival in Israel, the Mizrahim retained culture, customs and language distinct from their Ashkenazi counterparts. The collective estimate for Mizrahim (circa 2018) is at 4,000,000.

Disparities and integration

See also:Racism in Israel § Mizrahi

The cultural differences between Mizrahi and Ashkenazi Jews impacted the degree and rate of assimilation into Israeli society, and sometimes the divide between Eastern European and Middle Eastern Jews was quite sharp. Segregation, especially in the area of housing, limited integration possibilities over the years.Intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel and by the late 1990s 28% of all Israeli children had multi-ethnic parents (up from 14% in the 1950s).It has been claimed that intermarriage does not tend to decrease ethnic differences in socio-economic status,however, that does not apply to the children of inter-ethnic marriages.

Although social integration has increased, disparities persist. A study conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (ICBS), Mizrahi Jews are less likely to pursue academic studies than Ashkenazi Jews. Israeli-born Ashkenazim are up to twice as likely to study in a university as Israeli-born Mizrahim.Furthermore, the percentage of Mizrahim who seek a university education remains low compared to second-generation immigrant groups of Ashkenazi origin, such as Russians.According to a survey by the Adva Center, the average income of Ashkenazim was 36 percent higher than that of Mizrahim in 2004.

In 2023, journalist Shany Littman believes the dynamics of inequality have reversed, with most Israeli cabinet ministers and City mayors being Mizrahi Jews; also she stated that middle-class Mizrahi women earned more than their Ashkenazi counterparts.

Genetics

See also:Genetic studies on JewsandGenetic history of the Middle East

The Middle Eastern Jewish populations have a connection to the Jewish communities of Europe and North Africa in their paternal gene pool, suggesting a common Middle Eastern origin between them.

In autosomal analyses, theIraqi Jews,Iranian Jews,Bukharian Jews,Kurdish Jews,Mountain Jews,andGeorgian Jewsform a cluster. When examined at a more detailed level, the groups can be separated from each other.This cluster plots between Levantine and Northern West Asian populations.Syrian and North African Jews are separate from it and closer to the Sephardi Jews.Yemenite Jewsare distinct from other Jewish groups and cluster with the non-Jewish population of the Arabian Peninsula.

See also

• Adeni Jews
• Arab Jews
• Arab–Israeli conflict
• Berber Jews
• Eastern Sephardim
• Hebrews,a term which is used as asynonymfor the terms "Israelites"and"Jews"
• Jewish culture
• Jewish ethnic divisions
• List of Israeli Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews
• North African Sephardim
• Palestinian Jews
• Spanish and Portuguese Jews

References

Bibliography

• Gilbert, Martin(2010).In Ishmael's house: a History of Jews in Muslim Lands.New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-16715-3.
• Zaken, Mordechai (2007).Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains in Kurdistan: A Study in Survival.Boston and Leiden: Brill.
• Smadar, Lavie(2014).Wrapped in the Flag of Israel: Mizrahi Single Mothers and Bureaucratic Torture.Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1-78238-222-5.

External links

Organizations

• World Organization of Jews from Arab Countries
• Sephardic Pizmonim Project
• JIMENA– Jews Indigenous to the Middle East and North Africa
• Middle Eastern and North African Jewsat the Multiculturalism Project
• Hakeshet Hademocratit Hamizrachit– an organization of Mizrahi Jews in Israel
• Harif: Association of Jews from the Middle East and North Africa(British-based)
• Ha' Yisrayli Torah Brith Yahad, Mizrahi Jewish Int'l Medical Humanitarian NGO recognized by the United Nations Civil Society and Economic Development Division(US-based)
• Sephardi Voices UK– audiovisual testimonies of Jews in the UK originally from the Middle East, North Africa and Iran

Articles

• Ella Shohat,Israeli Cinema: East/West and the Politics of Representation,(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989; New Edition, London: I. B. Tauris, 2010).
• Ella Shohat,Le sionisme du point de vue de ses victimes juives: les juifs orientaux en Israel(first published in 1988, with a new introduction, La fabrique editions, Paris, 2006).
• Ella Shohat,Taboo Memories, Diasporic Voices(Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
• Shohat, Ella (2003). "Rupture and Return: Zionist Discourse and the Study of Arab Jews".Social Text.21(2): 49–74.doi:10.1215/01642472-21-2_75-49.S2CID143908777.Project MUSE43731.
• Shohat, Ella (1 October 1999). "The Invention of the Mizrahim".Journal of Palestine Studies.29(1): 5–20.doi:10.2307/2676427.JSTOR2676427.
• Shohat, Ella (March 1997). "The narrative of the nation and the discourse of modernization: The case of the Mizrahim".Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies.6(10): 3–18.doi:10.1080/10669929708720097.
• Shohat, Ella (1992). "Rethinking Jews and Muslims: Quincentennial Reflections".Middle East Report(178): 25–29.doi:10.2307/3012984.JSTOR3012984.
• Shohat, Ella (December 1992). "Staging the quincentenary: The middle east and the Americas".Third Text.6(21): 95–106.doi:10.1080/09528829208576390.
• Shohat, Ella (1988). "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims".Social Text(19/20): 1–35.doi:10.2307/466176.JSTOR466176.
• Leibler, Anat (April 2014). "Disciplining ethnicity: Social sorting intersects with political demography in Israel's pre-state period".Social Studies of Science.44(2): 271–292.doi:10.1177/0306312713509309.PMID24941614.S2CID44736417.
• Mizrahi Wanderings– Nancy Hawker onSamir Naqqash,one of Israel's foremost Arab-language Mizrahi novelists
• The Middle East's Forgotten RefugeesA chronicle of Mizrahi refugees by Semha Alwaya
• The Forgotten Refugees
• Moshe LevyThe story of an Iraqi Jew in the Israeli Navy and his survival on the war-ship Eilat
• My Life in IraqYeheskel Kojaman describes his life as an Iraqi Jew in the 1950s and 1960s
• Audio interview with Ammiel Alcalay discussing Mizrahi literature
• Excerpt fromThe Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Timesby Norman Stillman
• Etan Bloom,The Reproduction of the Model "Oriental" in the Israeli Social Space; the 50s and the speedy immigration.Tel-Aviv Univ. M.A. in the Unit for Culture Research, 2003. (Hebrew, with summary in English.)
• Sasson-Levy, Orna; Shoshana, Avi (August 2013). "'Passing' as (Non)Ethnic: The I sraeli Version of Acting White ".Sociological Inquiry.83(3): 448–472.doi:10.1111/soin.12007.
• Saul Silas FathiFull Circle: Escape From Baghdad and the Return by Saul Silas Fathi, A prominent Iraqi Jewish family's escape from persecution.
• Road From DamascusArchived16 August 2011 at theWayback Machine,Tablet Magazine

Communities

• Bukharian JewsBukharian Jewish community (English and Russian)
• PersianRabbiPersian Jewish community
• Kurdish Jewry (Hebrew)
• Sha'ar BinyaminDamascus Jewry (Hebrew and Spanish)
• Jews of Lebanon
• Historical Society of Jews from Egypt
• HarissaTunisian Jewish site (French)
• Jewish DjerbaDjerbian Jewish site (French)
• ZlabiaAlgerian Jewish site (French)
• Dafina.netMoroccan Jewish site (French)
• The Nash Didan CommunityPersian Azerbaijany, Aramaic speaking community (Hebrew, some English and Aramaic)