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Themodern eraor themodern periodis considered the currenthistorical periodofhuman history.It was originally applied to thehistory of EuropeandWestern historyfor events that came after theMiddle Ages,often from around the year 1500. From the 1990s, it is more common among historians to refer to the period after the Middle Ages and up to the 19th century as theearly modern period.The modern period is today more often used for events from the 19th century until today. The time from the end ofWorld War II(1945) can also be described as being part ofcontemporary history. The common definition of the modern period today is often associated with events like theFrench Revolution,theIndustrial Revolution,and the transition tonationalismtowards theliberal international order.

The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields ofscience,politics,warfare,andtechnology.It has also been anAge of Discoveryandglobalization.During this time, theEuropean powersand later their colonies, strengthened its political, economic, and culturalcolonizationof the rest of the world. It also created a new modern lifestyle and has permanently changed the way people around the world live.[1][2]

In the19thand early20th century,modernistart,politics,science,andculturehave come to dominate not onlyWestern EuropeandNorth America,but almost every area on the globe, includingmovements thought of as opposed tothewestern worldandglobalization.The modern era is closely associated with the development ofindividualism,capitalism,urbanization,and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and politicalprogress.

Thebrutalwarsandother conflicts of this era,many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connectedloss of strength of traditional religiousand ethical norms, have led to manyreactions against modern development.Optimismand thebelief in constant progresshave been most recently criticized bypostmodernism,while thedominanceof Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized bypostcolonial theory.

Terminology

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Eras can not easily be defined. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from thefall of Constantinople(1453),Gutenberg's moveable typeprinting press(1450s), completion of theReconquista(1492) andChristopher Columbus's voyage to theAmericas(also 1492), to theReformationbegun withMartin Luther'sNinety-five Theses(1517).[further explanation needed]

The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.[3]

The term "early modern" was introduced in the English language by American historians at the turn of the 20th century (around 1900).[4]It was long thought that the concept was invented either in the 1930s to distinguish the time between the Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800),[5]or that "early modern" was not coined until the mid-20th century and only gained substantial traction in the 1960s and 1970s.[4]Nipperdey (2022) pointed to its widespread usage by American historians around 1900 already, adding: 'In the interwar years the term permeated all areas of professional activity from textbooks and graduate school seminars to conferences, research articles, and job descriptions.'[4]The difference between "early modern" and just "modern" was defined by theFrench Revolutionand theIndustrial Revolution.[4]

Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "modernity"and"modernism"refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking.

TheEuropeanRenaissance(about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between theLate Middle Agesand Early Modern Times, which started in Italy.

"Postmodernism",coined 1949, on the other hand, would describe rather a movement inartthan a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.[6]This changed, whenpostmodernitywas coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy.

These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in theAge of Discoveries.[7]

Characteristics

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Changes, mostly seen as advances, in all areas of human activity—politics,industry,society,economics,commerce,transport,communication,mechanization,automation,science,medicine,technology,religion,thearts,and other aspects ofculture—appear to have transformed anOld Worldinto theModernorNew World.In each case, the identification of the change over time can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern.[8]

Starting in western countries, the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation ofvalue systems,monarchicalregimes, andfeudaleconomic systems. These have often been replaced bydemocraticandliberalideas in the areas ofpolitics,science,psychology,sociology,andeconomics.[9][10]

Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments.[11]Historians analyze the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "Middle Ages"(between Modern andAncient Times).[12]

Early modern period

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Main articles:Early modern periodandEarly modern Europe

Late 15th to 17th century

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Further information:16th centuryand17th century

Renaissanceand earlyReformation(c. 1450–1600)

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LateReformationand earlyBaroque(c. 1600–1700)

[edit]

The "Baroque"is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period.

18th century

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Main article:18th century

Age of Enlightenmentand earlyAge of Revolution(ca. 1700–1800)

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19th century

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Main article:19th century

Historians sometimes define a nineteenth centuryhistorical erastretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of theFirst World War); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "long nineteenth century"as spanning the years 1789 to 1914.

During this century, theSpanish,Portuguese,andOttoman Empiresbegan to crumble and theHoly RomanandMughal Empiresceased.

Napoleonic era (1799–1815)

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Main article:Napoleonic era

The Napoleonic era is a period in thehistory of Franceand Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of theFrench Revolution,the first being theNational Assembly,the second being theLegislative Assembly,and the third being theDirectory.The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon'scoup d'état,overthrowing the Directory and ends at theHundred Daysand his defeat atWaterloo(November 91799–June 281815). TheCongress of Viennasoon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days.

Spreading of the Industrial Revolution

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Main article:Industrial Revolution
A Watt steam engine inMadrid.The development of thesteam enginestarted the industrial revolution in England. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyondgroundwaterlevels.

The Industrial Revolution was the majortechnological,socioeconomic,andculturalchange in late 18th and early 19th century that began inBritainand spread throughout the world. During that time, aneconomybased onmanual labourwas replaced by one dominated by industry and themanufactureofmachinery.It began with the mechanisation of thetextileindustries and the development ofiron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction ofcanals,improvedroads,and thenrailways.The introduction ofsteam power(fuelled primarily bycoal) and powered machinery (mainly intextile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[13]The development of all-metalmachine toolsin the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact.Eric Hobsbawmheld that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[14]whileT. S. Ashtonheld that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns ofGeorge III,TheRegency,andGeorge IV).[15]

The effects spread throughoutWestern EuropeandNorth Americaduring the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change onsocietywas enormous and is often compared to theNeolithic Revolution,when mankind developedagricultureand gave up itsnomadiclifestyle.[16]

The First Industrial Revolution gave way to theSecond Industrial Revolutionaround 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-poweredshipsand railways, and later in the nineteenth century with theinternal combustion engineandelectric powergeneration.

Late 19th century

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Following theNapoleonic Wars,theBritish Empirebecame the world's leading power, controlling one-quarter of the world's population and one-third of the land area.[17]It enforced aPax Britannica,encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy.[18]

Slaverywas greatly reduced around the world. Following a successfulslave revolt in Haiti,Britain forced theBarbary piratesto halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans,banned slavery throughout its domainin 1833, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade.[19]Slavery was then abolished inRussiain 1861,[20]by theEmancipation Proclamationin the United States in 1863,[21]and inBrazilin 1888.[22](seeAbolitionism).

Following the abolition of theslave trade,and propelled by economic exploitation, theScramble for Africawas initiated formally at theBerlin West Africa Conferencein 1884–1885.[23]All the major European powers laid claim to the areas ofAfricawhere they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate.[24]TheFrenchgained major ground inWest Africa,theBritishinEast Africa,and thePortugueseandSpanishat various points throughout the continent, whileLeopold II of Belgiumwas able to retain his personal fiefdom,Congo.[25]

Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled aSecond Industrial Revolutionwhich enabledGermany,Japan,and theUnited Statesto becomegreat powersthatraced to create empires of their own.[26]However,RussiaandChinafailed to keep pace with the other world powers, which led to massive social unrest in both empires.[27]

20th century

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Main article:20th century

While earlier centuries also saw significant developments, the20th centurywas distinguished by the unprecedented pace and global scale of economic, technological, and cultural changes.[28]

Still, advancing technology and medicine have had a great impact even in theGlobal South.Large-scale industry and more centralizedmediamade brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented.[29]However, the increased communications contributed todemocratization.[30]

Technological developments included the development ofairplanesandspace exploration,nuclear technology,advancement ingenetics,and the dawning of theInformation Age.[31]

Major political developments included theIsraeli–Palestinianconflict,[32]two world wars,[33][34]and theCold War.[35]It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over Commonwealth countries, most notably by the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by theStatute of Westminster,[36]thepatriationof constitutions by theCanada Act 1982,[37]and theAustralia Act 1986,[38]as well as the independence of countries likeIndia,Pakistan,South Africa,andIreland.[39]

World War I

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Main article:World War I

The First World War was aworld conflict,ranging from July 1914 to the finalArmisticeon 11 November 1918. TheAllied Powers,led by theBritish Empire,France,Russiauntil March 1918,Japanand theUnited Statesafter 1917, defeated theCentral Powers,led by theGerman Empire,Austro-Hungarian Empireand theOttoman Empire.The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as theTriple Entente,and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as theTriple Alliance.

Much of the fighting in World War I took place along theWestern Front,within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "no man's land") running from theNorth Seato the border ofSwitzerland.On theEastern Front,the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages andgenocidecommitted under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwideinfluenza outbreakat the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become apandemic.[40]

Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the oldworld orderthat had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development ofWorld War IIapproximately 20 years later.

Interwar period

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Main article:Interwar period

The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included theRoaring Twenties,theGreat Depression,and the rise ofcommunismin Russia andfascismin Italy and Germany.

World War II

[edit]
Main article:World War II

World War II was aglobalmilitary conflictthat took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating inThe Holocaustand ending with the dropping of theatom bomb.[41]

Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that World War II began on September 1, 1939, whenNazi Germanyinvaded Poland. Within two days, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggressionMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe.[42]TheAllieswere initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well asBritish Commonwealthcountries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as theIndian Empire.All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.[43]

Following the lull in fighting, known as the "Phoney War",Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, theTripartite Pact,and were known as theAxis Powers.Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompted it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts.[44]

On December 7, 1941,Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor,bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time and attacked Japanese armies through guerrilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants was as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union, and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan.[45]The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China were referred to as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during World War II[46]and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in theDeclaration by United Nations.[47]These four countries were considered the "Four Policemen"or" Four Sheriffs "of theAlliesand were the primary victors of World War II.[48]Battles raged across all of Europe, in the northAtlantic Ocean,across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean, and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupiedpuppet stateand an Allies-friendly state in the south; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,Japan surrendered,marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.[49]

It is possible that around 62 million peopledied in the war;estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation,genocide(in particular, theHolocaust), and aerial bombing.[50]The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.[51]The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole" ) was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" groups during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as duringKristallnacht(Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.[52]

After World War II,Europewas informally split into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Western Europelater aligned asNATO,andEastern Europeas theWarsaw Pact.There was a shift in power from Western Europe and theBritish Empireto the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in theCold War.[53]In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to itsdemocratization.China's civil warcontinued through and after the war, eventually resulting in the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China.The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.[54]

Cold War

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Main article:Cold War
See also:Contemporary historyandPost–Cold War era

TheCold Warbetween the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945, until thecollapse of the Soviet Unionin 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and thepost–Cold War erabegan (which includes most of the1990s,the last decade of the 20th century).[55][56]

TheKorean War,Vietnam War,andSoviet–Afghan War,impacted political life, while thecounterculture of the 1960sand therise of computerschanged society in different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility.[57][58]

1990s

[edit]
Main article:1990s

At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technologies radically altered daily lives.[59]However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed.

First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, arguing that there was a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many.[60]Others claimed that powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of theThird World.[61]Developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, along with the associated costs.[62]

Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such asWest NileandAvian influenzacontinued to spread quickly and easily.[63][64]In poor nations,malariaand other diseases affected the majority of the population.[65]Millions were infected withHIV,the virus that causesAIDS,which was becoming anepidemic in southern Africaand around the world.[66]

Increasedglobalization,specificallyAmericanization,was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western andanti-Americanfeelings in parts of the world, especially in theMiddle East.[67]English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged.[68]

Terrorism,dictatorship,and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such asKim Jong-ilinNorth Koreacontinued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.[69]The fear existed that not only were terrorists already attempting to obtain nuclear weapons, but that they had already acquired them.[70]

See also

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Notes

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  2. ^"How does colonialism shape the world we live in?".Al Jazeera.Retrieved2024-08-01.
  3. ^"modern".The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2000. Archived fromthe originalon June 22, 2008.RetrievedDecember 19,2022.
  4. ^abcdNipperdey 2022,p. 199.
  5. ^New Dictionary of the History of Ideas,Volume 5, Detroit 2005. s.v. "Modernism and Modern".
  6. ^"Definition of POSTMODERN".merriam-webster.2 June 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 1 January 2008.Retrieved9 October2022.
  7. ^"Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts: Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine".nlm.nih.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-04-23.Retrieved2022-10-09.
  8. ^Giddens, Anthony (1990).The Consequences of Modernity.Stanford University Press. pp. 1–5.ISBN978-0804718912.
  9. ^Fukuyama, Francis (2011).The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution.Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 321–323.ISBN978-1846682568.
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  11. ^Berman, Marshall (1982).All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity.Verso. pp. 14–17.ISBN978-0140109627.
  12. ^Davis, Natalie Zemon (1975).Society and Culture in Early Modern France.Stanford University Press. pp. 3–5.ISBN978-0804709729.
  13. ^Meier, Gerald M.; Rauch, James E. (2000).Leading Issues in Economic Development.Oxford University Press. p. 98.ISBN978-0-19-511589-5.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-31.Retrieved2023-02-08.
  14. ^Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848,Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd.ISBN0-349-10484-0
  15. ^Joseph E Inikori.Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development.Cambridge University Press. p. 102.ISBN0-521-01079-9.
  16. ^Brown, Lester Russell (2003).Eco-economy: Building an Economy for the Earth.Earthscan. p. 93.ISBN978-1-85383-904-7.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-14.Retrieved2023-02-08.
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  26. ^Mokyr, Joel (1990).The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.Oxford University Press. pp. 178–181.ISBN978-0195074772.
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  28. ^Hobsbawm, Eric (1994).The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914-1991.Michael Joseph. pp. 7–9.ISBN978-0679730057.
  29. ^Overy, Richard (2005).The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia.Allen Lane. pp. 16–20.ISBN978-0140281491.
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  36. ^Townshend, Charles (2011).The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press. pp. 106–107.ISBN978-0199605415.
  37. ^Russell, Peter H. (2004).Constitutional Odyssey: Can Canadians Become a Sovereign People?.University of Toronto Press. pp. 123–126.ISBN978-0802085917.
  38. ^Saunders, Cheryl(2011).The Constitution of Australia: A Contextual Analysis.Hart Publishing. pp. 68–70.ISBN978-1841137346.
  39. ^Judt, Tony (2006).Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945.Penguin Books. pp. 91–93.ISBN978-0143037750.
  40. ^Barry, John M.(2004).The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History.Viking Penguin.ISBN0-670-89473-7.
  41. ^Keegan, John (1989).The Second World War.Penguin. pp. 5–6.ISBN978-0140113419.
  42. ^Roberts, Geoffrey (1995).The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War.Macmillan. pp. 55–58.ISBN978-0333640685.
  43. ^Overy, Richard (1995).Why the Allies Won.Pimlico. pp. 3–4.ISBN9781845950651.
  44. ^Beevor, Antony (2012).The Second World War.Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 137–139.ISBN978-0297844976.
  45. ^Gilbert, Martin (1989).The Second World War: A Complete History.Henry Holt. pp. 223–225.ISBN9780805005349.
  46. ^Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005).Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 62–63.ISBN978-0847694167.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-12-03.Retrieved2019-10-13.
  47. ^Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley.FDR and the Creation of the U.N.(Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 155–160.
  48. ^Gaddis, John Lewis (1972).The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947.Columbia University Press. pp.24–25.ISBN978-0231122399.
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  50. ^Ferguson, Niall (2007).The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West.Penguin. pp. 413–416.ISBN978-0143112396.
  51. ^Snyder, Timothy (2012).Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin.Basic Books. pp. 67–69.ISBN978-0465032976.
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  53. ^Leffler, Melvyn P. (1993).A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War.Stanford University Press. pp. 15–17.ISBN978-0804719247.
  54. ^Darwin, John (2008).After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000.Bloomsbury Press. pp. 357–360.ISBN978-1596913936.
  55. ^Gaddis, John Lewis (2005).The Cold War: A New History.Penguin Press. pp. 35–40.ISBN978-1594200625.
  56. ^Leffler, Melvyn P. (2007).For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War.Hill and Wang. pp. 80–85.ISBN9780374531423.
  57. ^Westad, Odd Arne (2007).The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times.Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–217.ISBN978-0521703147.
  58. ^Castells, Manuel (1996).The Rise of the Network Society.Blackwell Publishers. pp. 3–8.ISBN978-1557866172.
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  62. ^Collier, Paul (2007).The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It.Oxford University Press. pp. 40–42.ISBN978-0195311457.
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  67. ^Chomsky, Noam (2003).Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance.Metropolitan Books. pp. 45–47.ISBN978-0-8050-7400-0.
  68. ^Crystal, David (1997).English as a Global Language.Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–15.ISBN978-0521592475.
  69. ^Cha, Victor D. (2012).The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future.Ecco. pp. 20–22.ISBN978-0061998508.
  70. ^Allison, Graham (2004).Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe.Henry Holt and Co. pp. 15–18.ISBN9780805078527.

References

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