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This article is about the seasonal winds. For other uses, seeMonsoon (disambiguation).
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Advancing monsoon clouds and showers in Aralvaimozhy, nearNagercoil,India
Monsoon clouds arriving at Port Blair, Andaman, India
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Amonsoon(/mɒnˈsuːn/) is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes inprecipitation[1]but is now used to describe seasonal changes inatmosphericcirculation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of theIntertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south of the equator. Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to therainy phaseof a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.[2][3]

The major monsoon systems of the world consist of theWest African,Asian–Australian,theNorth American,and South American monsoons.

The term was firstused in English in British Indiaand neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from theBay of BengalandArabian Seain the southwest bringing heavyrainfallto the area.[4][5]

Etymology

Monsoon clouds overLucknow,Uttar Pradesh,India

The etymology of the word monsoon is not wholly certain.[6]The Englishmonsooncame from Portuguesemonçãoultimately fromArabicموسم(mawsim,"season" ), "perhaps partly via early modern Dutchmonson".[7]

History

Asian monsoon

Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of theTibetan Plateauafter the collision of theIndian subcontinentand Asia around 50 million years ago.[8]Because of studies of records from theArabian Seaand that of the wind-blown dust in theLoess Plateauof China, many geologists believe the monsoon first became strong around 8 million years ago. More recently, studies of plant fossils in China and new long-durationsedimentrecords from theSouth China Sealed to a timing of the monsoon beginning 15–20 million years ago and linked to early Tibetan uplift.[9]Testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by theIntegrated Ocean Drilling Program.[10]The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to globalclimate change,especially the cycle of thePleistoceneice ages.[11]A study of Asian monsoonal climate cycles from 123,200 to 121,210 years BP, during theEemianinterglacial, suggests that they had an average duration of around 64 years, with the minimum duration being around 50 years and the maximum approximately 80 years, similar to today.[12]

A study of marine plankton suggested that the South Asian Monsoon (SAM) strengthened around 5 million years ago. Then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and theIndonesian Seawayclosed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean. It is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons.[13]In 2018, a study of the SAM's variability over the past million years found that precipitation resulting from the monsoon was significantly reduced duringglacial periodscompared tointerglacialperiods like the present day.[14]The Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) underwent several intensifications during the warming following the Last Glacial Maximum, specifically during the time intervals corresponding to 16,100–14,600 BP, 13,600–13,000 BP, and 12,400–10,400 BP as indicated by vegetation changes in the Tibetan Plateau displaying increases in humidity brought by an intensifying ISM.[15]Though the ISM was relatively weak for much of the Late Holocene, significant glacial accumulation in the Himalayas still occurred due to cold temperatures brought by westerlies from the west.[16]

During theMiddle Miocene,the July ITCZ, the zone of rainfall maximum, migrated northwards, increasing precipitation over southern China during the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) while making Indochina drier.[17]During the Late Miocene Global Cooling (LMCG), from 7.9 to 5.8 million years ago, the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger as the subarctic front shifted southwards.[18]An abrupt intensification of the EAWM occurred 5.5 million years ago.[19]The EAWM was still significantly weaker relative to today between 4.3 and 3.8 million years ago but abruptly became more intense around 3.8 million years ago[20]as crustal stretching widened the Tsushima Strait and enabled greater inflow of the warm Tsushima Current into the Sea of Japan.[21]Circa 3.0 million years ago, the EAWM became more stable, having previously been more variable and inconsistent, in addition to being enhanced further amidst a period of global cooling and sea level fall.[22]The EASM was weaker during cold intervals of glacial periods such as theLast Glacial Maximum(LGM) and stronger during interglacials and warm intervals of glacial periods.[23]Another EAWM intensification event occurred 2.6 million years ago, followed by yet another one around 1.0 million years ago.[19]DuringDansgaard–Oeschger events,the EASM grew in strength, but it has been suggested to have decreased in strength duringHeinrich events.[24]The EASM expanded its influence deeper into the interior of Asia as sea levels rose following the LGM;[25]it also underwent a period of intensification during the Middle Holocene, around 6,000 years ago, due to orbital forcing made more intense by the fact that the Sahara at the time was much more vegetated and emitted less dust.[26]This Middle Holocene interval of maximum EASM was associated with an expansion of temperate deciduous forest steppe and temperate mixed forest steppe in northern China.[27]By around 5,000 to 4,500 BP, the East Asian monsoon's strength began to wane, weakening from that point until the present day.[28]A particularly notable weakening took place ~3,000 BP.[29]The location of the EASM shifted multiple times over the course of the Holocene: first, it moved southward between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, followed by an expansion to the north between approximately 8,000 and 4,000 BP, and most recently retreated southward once more between 4,000 and 0 BP.[30]

Australian monsoon

The January ITCZ migrated further south to its present location during the Middle Miocene, strengthening the summer monsoon of Australia that had previously been weaker.[17]

Five episodes during theQuaternaryat 2.22Ma([clarification needed]PL-1), 1.83 Ma (PL-2), 0.68 Ma (PL-3), 0.45 Ma (PL-4) and 0.04 Ma (PL-5) were identified which showed a weakening of theLeeuwin Current(LC). The weakening of the LC would have an effect on thesea surface temperature (SST) fieldin the Indian Ocean, as theIndonesian Throughflowgenerally warms the Indian Ocean. Thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. During the weak LC, there is the possibility of reduced intensity of the Indian winter monsoon and strong summer monsoon, because of change in theIndian Ocean dipoledue to reduction in net heat input to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Throughflow. Thus a better understanding of the possible links betweenEl Niño,Western Pacific Warm Pool, Indonesian Throughflow, wind pattern off western Australia, and ice volume expansion and contraction can be obtained by studying the behaviour of the LC during Quaternary at close stratigraphic intervals.[31]

South American monsoon

The South American summer monsoon (SASM) is known to have become weakened during Dansgaard–Oeschger events. The SASM has been suggested to have been enhanced during Heinrich events.[24]

On May 28, in the dry season
On August 28, in the rainy season
Western Ghatsin 2010
This visualization shows the Asian monsoon and how it develops using observational and modeled data. It also shows some of the impacts.

Process

Monsoons were once considered as a large-scalesea breeze[32]caused by higher temperature over land than in the ocean. This is no longer considered as the cause and the monsoon is now considered a planetary-scale phenomenon involving the annual migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone between its northern and southern limits. The limits of the ITCZ vary according to the land–sea heating contrast and it is thought that the northern extent of the monsoon in South Asia is influenced by the high Tibetan Plateau.[33][34]These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. Over oceans, the air temperature remains relatively stable for two reasons: water has a relatively highheat capacity(3.9 to 4.2 J g−1K−1),[35]and because bothconductionandconvectionwill equilibrate a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 metres). In contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities (0.19 to 0.35 J g−1K−1),[36]and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at a more even temperature, while land temperatures are more variable.

During warmer months sunlight heats the surfaces of both land and oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly. As the land's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area oflow pressuredevelops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower temperature than the land, and the air above it retains a higher pressure. This difference in pressure causessea breezesto blow from the ocean to the land, bringing moist air inland. This moist air rises to a higher altitude over land and then it flows back toward the ocean (thus completing the cycle). However, when the air rises, and while it is still over the land, the aircools.This decreases the air'sability to hold water,and this causesprecipitationover the land. This is why summer monsoons cause so much rain over land.

In the colder months, the cycle is reversed. Then the land cools faster than the oceans and the air over the land has higher pressure than air over the ocean. This causes the air over the land to flow to the ocean. When humid air rises over the ocean, it cools, and this causes precipitation over the oceans. (The cool air then flows towards the land to complete the cycle.)

Most summer monsoons have a dominant westerly component and a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious amounts of rain (because of the condensation of water vapor in the rising air). The intensity and duration, however, are not uniform from year to year. Winter monsoons, by contrast, have a dominant easterly component and a strong tendency to diverge, subside and cause drought.[37]

Similar rainfall is caused when moist ocean air is lifted upwards by mountains,[38]surface heating,[39]convergence at the surface,[40]divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows at the surface.[41]However the lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, and this producescondensation.

Global monsoon

Summary table

Location Monsoon/sub-system Average date of arrival Average date of withdrawal Notes
Northern Mexico North American/Gulf of California-Southwest USA late May[42] September incomplete wind reversal, waves
Tucson, Arizona, USA North American/Gulf of California-Southwest USA early July[42] September incomplete wind reversal, waves
Central America Central/South American Monsoon April[citation needed] October[citation needed] true monsoon
Amazon Brazil South American monsoon September[citation needed] May[citation needed] waves
Southeast Brazil South American monsoon November[citation needed] March[citation needed] waves
West Africa West African June 22[43] Sept[44]/October[43] waves
Southeast Africa Southeast Africa monsoon w/ Harmattan Jan[44] March[44] waves
Kerala, India Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina Jun 1[45] Dec 1[45] persistent
Mumbai, India Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina June 10[45] Oct 1[45] persistent
Karachi, Pakistan Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina late June - early July[45] September[45] abrupt
Lahore, Pakistan Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina late June[45] end of September[45] abrupt
Phuket, Thailand Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina February/March December persistent
Colombo, Sri Lanka Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina May 25[45] Dec 15[45] persistent
Bangkok, Thailand Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina April–May October/November persistent
Yangon, Myanmar Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina May 25[45] Nov 1[45] persistent
Dhaka, Bangladesh Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina mid-June October abrupt
Cebu, Philippines Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian October March abrupt
Kelantan,Malaysia Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian October March waves
Jakarta, Indonesia Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian November March abrupt
Kaohsiung, Taiwan Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon May 10[45] October abrupt
Taipei, Taiwan Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon May 20[45] October abrupt
Hanoi, Vietnam Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon May 20[45] October abrupt
Kagoshima, Japan Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon Jun 10[45] October abrupt
Seoul, South Korea Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon July 10[45] September abrupt
Beijing, China Indo-Australian/Indian-Indochina/East Asian monsoon July 20[45] September abrupt
Darwin, Australia Indo-Australian/Borneo-Australian/Australian monsoon Oct[44] April[44] persistent

Africa (West African and Southeast African)

Southeast African monsoon clouds overMayotte

The monsoon of westernSub-Saharan Africais the result of the seasonal shifts of theIntertropical Convergence Zoneand the great seasonal temperature and humidity differences between theSaharaand the equatorial Atlantic Ocean.[46]The ITCZ migrates northward from the equatorial Atlantic in February, reaches western Africa on or near June 22, then moves back to the south by October.[43]The dry, northeasterlytrade winds,and their more extreme form, theharmattan,are interrupted by the northern shift in theITCZand resultant southerly, rain-bearing winds during the summer. The semiaridSahelandSudandepend upon this pattern for most of their precipitation.

North America

Main articles:North American monsoonandUnited States rainfall climatology
Incoming monsoon clouds overPhoenix, Arizona
Three-second video of a lightning strike within a thunderstorm over Island in the Sky,Canyonlands National Park

TheNorth American monsoon(NAM) occurs from late June or early July into September, originating over Mexico and spreading into the southwest United States by mid-July. It affects Mexico along theSierra Madre Occidentalas well asArizona,New Mexico,Nevada,Utah,Colorado,West TexasandCalifornia.It pushes as far west as thePeninsular RangesandTransverse Rangesof Southern California, but rarely reaches the coastal strip (a wall of desert thunderstorms only a half-hour's drive away is a common summer sight from the sunny skies along the coast during the monsoon). The North American monsoon is known to many as theSummer,Southwest,MexicanorArizonamonsoon.[47][48]It is also sometimes called theDesert monsoonas a large part of the affected area are theMojaveandSonoran deserts.However, it is controversial whether theNorthand South American weather patterns with incomplete wind reversal should be counted as true monsoons.[49][50]

Asia

The Asian monsoons may be classified into a few sub-systems, such as the Indian Subcontinental Monsoon which affects the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions including Nepal, and the East Asian Monsoon which affects southern China,Taiwan,Korea and parts of Japan.

South Asian monsoon

Main article:Monsoon of South Asia
Southwest monsoon
Onset dates and prevailing wind currents of the southwest summer monsoons in India

The southwestern summer monsoons occur from June through September. TheThar Desertand adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up considerably during the hot summers. This causes a low pressure area over the northern and central Indian subcontinent. To fill this void, the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean rush into the subcontinent. These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards theHimalayas.The Himalayas act like a high wall, blocking the winds from passing into Central Asia, and forcing them to rise. As the clouds rise, their temperature drops, andprecipitation occurs.Some areas of the subcontinent receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in) of rain annually.

The southwest monsoon is generally expected to begin around the beginning of June and fade away by the end of September. The moisture-laden winds on reaching the southernmost point of theIndian Peninsula,due to its topography, become divided into two parts: theArabian Sea Branchand theBay of Bengal Branch.

TheArabian Sea Branchof the Southwest Monsoon first hits theWestern Ghatsof the coastal state ofKerala,India, thus making this area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. This branch of the monsoon moves northwards along the Western Ghats (KonkanandGoa) with precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The eastern areas of the Western Ghats do not receive much rain from this monsoon as the wind does not cross the Western Ghats.

TheBay of Bengal Branchof Southwest Monsoon flows over theBay of Bengalheading towards north-east India andBengal,picking up more moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The winds arrive at theEastern Himalayaswith large amounts of rain.Mawsynram,situated on the southern slopes of theKhasi HillsinMeghalaya,India, is one of the wettest places on Earth. After the arrival at the Eastern Himalayas, the winds turns towards the west, travelling over theIndo-Gangetic Plainat a rate of roughly 1–2 weeks per state,[51]pouring rain all along its way. June 1 is regarded as the date of onset of the monsoon in India, as indicated by the arrival of the monsoon in the southernmost state of Kerala.

The monsoon accounts for nearly 80% of the rainfall in India.[52][53]Indian agriculture (which accounts for 25% of the GDP and employs 70% of the population) is heavily dependent on the rains, for growing crops especially likecotton,rice,oilseedsand coarse grains. A delay of a few days in the arrival of the monsoon can badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in India in the 1990s.

The monsoon is widely welcomed and appreciated by city-dwellers as well, for it provides relief from the climax of summer heat in June.[54]However, the roads take a battering every year. Often houses and streets are waterlogged and slums are flooded despite drainage systems. A lack of city infrastructure coupled with changing climate patterns causes severe economic loss including damage to property and loss of lives, as evidenced in the2005 flooding in Mumbaithat brought the city to a standstill.Bangladeshand certain regions of India likeAssamandWest Bengal,also frequently experience heavy floods during this season. Recently, areas in India that used to receive scanty rainfall throughout the year, like theThar Desert,have surprisingly ended up receiving floods due to the prolonged monsoon season.

The influence of the Southwest Monsoon is felt as far north as in China'sXin gian g.It is estimated that about 70% of all precipitation in the central part of theTian Shan Mountainsfalls during the three summer months, when the region is under the monsoon influence; about 70% of that is directly of "cyclonic" (i.e., monsoon-driven) origin (as opposed to "local convection").[55]The effects also extend westwards to the Mediterranean, where however the impact of the monsoon is to induce drought via theRodwell-Hoskins mechanism.[56]

Extreme difference is very much evident between wet and dry seasons in tropical seasonal forest. The image at left is taken atBhawal National Parkin central Bangladesh during dry season, and the right one is taken in wet monsoon season.
Northeast monsoon
Monsoon clouds inMadhya Pradesh

Around September, with the sun retreating south, the northern landmass of the Indian subcontinent begins to cool off rapidly, and air pressure begins to build over northern India. The Indian Ocean and its surrounding atmosphere still hold their heat, causing cold wind to sweep down from theHimalayasandIndo-Gangetic Plaintowards the vast spans of the Indian Ocean south of theDeccanpeninsula. This is known as the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon.

While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the cold dry wind picks up some moisture from theBay of Bengaland pours it over peninsular India and parts ofSri Lanka.Cities likeChennai,which get less rain from the Southwest Monsoon, receive rain from this Monsoon. About 50% to 60% of the rain received by the state ofTamil Naduis from the Northeast Monsoon.[57]In Southern Asia, the northeastern monsoons take place from October to December when the surfacehigh-pressure systemis strongest.[58]Thejet streamin this region splits into the southern subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly winds to blow across southern Asia, creating dryair streamswhich produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile, a low pressure system known as amonsoon troughdevelops overSouth-East AsiaandAustralasiaand winds are directed toward Australia. In the Philippines, northeast monsoon is calledAmihan.[59]

East Asian monsoon

Main article:East Asian monsoon
Monsoon floods in the Philippines
Monsoonal summer thunderstorm inSilang, Cavite,Philippines

The East Asian monsoon affects large parts ofIndochina,thePhilippines,China,Taiwan,Korea, Japan, andSiberia.It is characterised by a warm, rainy summer monsoon and a cold, dry winter monsoon. The rain occurs in a concentrated belt that stretches east–west except in East China where it is tilted east-northeast over Korea and Japan. The seasonal rain is known asMeiyuin China,Jangmain Korea, andBai-uin Japan, with the latter two resembling frontal rain.

The onset of the summer monsoon is marked by a period of premonsoonal rain over South China and Taiwan in early May. From May through August, the summer monsoon shifts through a series of dry and rainy phases as the rain belt moves northward, beginning overIndochinaand theSouth China Sea(May), to theYangtze River Basinand Japan (June) and finally to northern China and Korea (July). When the monsoon ends in August, the rain belt moves back to southern China.

Australia

Main article:Australian monsoon
Monsoonal squall nearsDarwin, Northern Territory,Australia

The rainy season occurs from September to February and it is a major source of energy for theHadley circulationduring boreal winter. It is associated with the development of theSiberian Highand the movement of the heating maxima from the Northern Hemisphere to the Southern Hemisphere. North-easterly winds flow down Southeast Asia, are turned north-westerly/westerly byBorneotopography towards Australia. This forms a cyclonic circulation vortex over Borneo, which together with descending cold surges of winter air from higher latitudes, cause significant weather phenomena in the region. Examples are the formation of a rare low-latitude tropical storm in 2001,Tropical Storm Vamei,and thedevastating flood of Jakartain 2007.

The onset of the monsoon overAustraliatends to follow the heating maxima downVietnamand theMalay Peninsula(September), toSumatra,Borneoand thePhilippines(October), toJava,Sulawesi(November),Irian Jayaand northern Australia (December, January). However, the monsoon is not a simple response to heating but a more complex interaction of topography, wind and sea, as demonstrated by its abrupt rather than gradual withdrawal from the region. The Australian monsoon (the "Wet" ) occurs in the southern summer when the monsoon trough develops overNorthern Australia.Over three-quarters of annual rainfall in Northern Australia falls during this time.

Europe

See also:Climate of Europe

TheEuropean Monsoon(more commonly known as thereturn of the westerlies) is the result of a resurgence of westerly winds from the Atlantic, where they become loaded with wind and rain.[60]These westerly winds are a common phenomenon during the European winter, but they ease as spring approaches in late March and through April and May. The winds pick up again in June, which is why this phenomenon is also referred to as "the return of the westerlies".[61]

The rain usually arrives in two waves, at the beginning of June, and again in mid- to late June. The European monsoon is not a monsoon in the traditional sense in that it doesn't meet all the requirements to be classified as such. Instead, the return of the westerlies is more regarded as a conveyor belt that delivers a series of low-pressure centres to Western Europe where they create unsettled weather. These storms generally feature significantly lower-than-average temperatures, fierce rain or hail, thunder, and strong winds.[62]

The return of the westerlies affects Europe's Northern Atlantic coastline, more precisely Ireland, Great Britain, theBenelux countries,western Germany, northern France and parts of Scandinavia.

See also

References

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