Moral realism

For the book by Russ Shafer-Landau, seeMoral Realism: A Defence.

Moral realism(alsoethical realism) is the position thatethicalsentencesexpresspropositionsthat refer toobjectivefeatures of the world (that is, features independent of subjective opinion), some of which may be true to the extent that they report those features accurately. This makes moral realism a non-nihilistform ofethical cognitivism(which accepts that ethical sentences express propositions and can therefore be true or false) with anontologicalorientation, standing in opposition to all forms of moralanti-realismandmoral skepticism,includingethical subjectivism(which denies that moral propositions refer to objective facts),error theory(which denies that any moral propositions are true), andnon-cognitivism(which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all). Moral realism's two main subdivisions areethical naturalismandethical non-naturalism.

Most philosophers claim that moral realism dates at least to Plato as a philosophical doctrineand that it is a fully defensible form of moral doctrine.A 2009 survey involving 3,226 respondentsfound that 56% of philosophers accept or lean toward moral realism (28%: anti-realism; 16%: other).A 2020 study found that 62.1% accept or lean toward realism.Some notable examples of robust moral realists includeDavid Brink,John McDowell,Peter Railton,Geoffrey Sayre-McCord,Michael Smith,Terence Cuneo,Russ Shafer-Landau,G. E. Moore,John Finnis,Richard Boyd,Nicholas Sturgeon,Thomas Nagel,Derek Parfit,andPeter Singer.Norman Gerashas argued thatKarl Marxwas a moral realist.Moral realism's various philosophical and practical applications have been studied.

Robust versus minimal moral realism

A delineation of moral realism into a minimal form, a moderate form, and a robust form has been put forward in the literature.

The robust model of moral realism commits moral realists to three theses:

• The semantic thesis:The primary semantic role of moral predicates (such as "right" and "wrong" ) is to refer to moral properties (such as rightness and wrongness), so that moral statements (such as "honesty is good" and "slavery is unjust" ) purport to represent moral facts, and express propositions that are true or false (or approximately true, largely false, and so on).
• The alethic thesis:Some moral propositions are in fact true.
• The metaphysical thesis:Moral propositions are true when actions and other objects of moral assessment have the relevant moral properties (so that the relevant moral facts obtain), where these facts and properties are robust: their metaphysical status, whatever it is, is not relevantly different from that of (certain types of) ordinary non-moral facts and properties.

The minimal model leaves off the metaphysical thesis, treating it as matter of contentionamongmoral realists (as opposed tobetweenmoral realists and moral anti-realists). This dispute is not insignificant, as acceptance or rejection of the metaphysical thesis is taken by those employing the robust model as the key difference between moral realism and moral anti-realism. Indeed, the question of how to classify certainlogically possible(if eccentric) views—such as the rejection of the semantic and alethic theses in conjunction with the acceptance of the metaphysical thesis—turns on which model we accept.Someone employing the robust model might call such a view "realist non-cognitivism," while someone employing the minimal model might simply place such a view alongside other, more traditional, forms of non-cognitivism.

The robust model and the minimal model also disagree over how to classifymoral subjectivism(roughly, the view that moral facts are not mind-independent in the relevant sense, but that moral statements may still be true).The historical association of subjectivism with moral anti-realism in large part explains why the robust model of moral realism has been dominant—even if only implicitly—both in the traditional and contemporary philosophical literature on metaethics.

In the minimal sense of realism,R. M. Harecould be considered a realist in his later works, as he is committed to the objectivity of value judgments, even though he denies that moral statements express propositions withtruth-valuesper se. Moral constructivists likeJohn RawlsandChristine Korsgaardmay also be realists in this minimalist sense; the latter describes her own position as procedural realism. Some readings of evolutionary science such as those ofCharles DarwinandJames Mark Baldwinhave suggested that in so far as anethicsmay be associated with survival strategies and natural selection then such behavior may be associated with a moderate position of moral realism equivalent to an ethics of survival.

Advantages

Moral realism allows the ordinary rules of logic (modus ponens,etc.) to be applied straightforwardly to moral statements. We can say that a moral belief isfalseorunjustifiedorcontradictoryin the same way we would about a factual belief. This is a problem forexpressivism,as shown by theFrege–Geach problem.

Another advantage of moral realism is its capacity to resolve moral disagreements: if two moral beliefs contradict one another, realism says that they cannot both be right, and therefore everyone involved ought to be seeking out the right answer to resolve the disagreement. Contrary theories ofmeta-ethicshave trouble even formulating the statement "this moral belief is wrong," and so they cannot resolve disagreements in this way.

Proponents

Peter Railton's moral realism is often associated with a naturalist approach. He argues that moral facts can be reduced to non-moral facts and that our moral claims aim to describe an objective reality. In his well-known paper "Moral Realism" (1986),Railton advocates for a form of moral realism that is naturalistic and scientifically accessible. He suggests that moral facts can be understood in terms of the naturalistic concept of an individual's good. He employs a hypothetical observer's standpoint to explain moral judgments. This standpoint considers what fully rational, well-informed, and sympathetic agents would agree upon under ideal conditions. Railton's naturalistic approach aims to bridge the is-ought gap by explaining moral facts in terms of natural facts, and his theory is generally considered to be a response to the challenge of moral skepticism and anti-realism. By doing so, he attempts to show that moral facts are not mysterious or disconnected from the rest of the world, but can be understood and studied much like other natural phenomena.

Philippa Footadopts a moral realist position, criticizingStevenson's idea that when evaluation is superposed on fact there has been a "committal in a new dimension."She introduces, by analogy, the practical implications of using the word "injury." Not just anything counts as an injury. There must be some impairment. When we suppose a man wants the things the injury prevents him from obtaining, have not we fallen into the oldnaturalistic fallacy?

It may seem that the only way to make a necessary connection between 'injury' and the things that are to be avoided, is to say that it is only used in an 'action-guiding sense' when applied to something the speaker intends to avoid. But we should look carefully at the crucial move in that argument, and query the suggestion that someone might happen not to want anything for which he would need the use of hands or eyes. Hands and eyes, like ears and legs, play a part in so many operations that a man could only be said not to need them if he had no wants at all.

Foot argues that the virtues, like hands and eyes in the analogy, play so large a part in so many operations that it is implausible to suppose that a committal in a non-naturalist dimension is necessary to demonstrate their goodness.

Philosophers who have supposed that actual action was required if 'good' were to be used in a sincere evaluation have got into difficulties over weakness of will, and they should surely agree that enough has been done if we can show that any man has reason to aim at virtue and avoid vice. But is this impossibly difficult if we consider the kinds of things that count as virtue and vice? Consider, for instance, the cardinal virtues, prudence, temperance, courage and justice. Obviously any man needs prudence, but does he not also need to resist the temptation of pleasure when there is harm involved? And how could it be argued that he would never need to face what was fearful for the sake of some good? It is not obvious what someone would mean if he said that temperance or courage were not good qualities, and this not because of the 'praising' sense of these words, but because of the things that courage and temperance are.

W. D. Rossarticulates his moral realism in analogy to mathematics by stating that the moral order is just as real as "the spatial or numerical structure expressed in the axioms of geometry or arithmetic".

In his defense ofDivine Command Theoryand thereby moral realism,C. Stephen Evanscomments that the fact that there are significant moral disagreements does not undermine moral realism. Much of what may appear to be moral disagreement is actually disagreement over facts. In abortion debates, for example, the crux of the issue may really be whether a fetus is a human person. He goes on to comment that there are in fact tremendous amounts of moral agreement. There are five common principles that are recognized by different human cultures, including (1) A general duty not to harm others and a general duty to benefit others; (2) Special duties to those with whom one has special relations, such as friends and family members; (3) Duties to be truthful; (4) Duties to keep one's commitments and promises; (5) Duties to deal fairly and justly with others.

Criticisms

Several criticisms have been raised against moral realism. A prominent criticism, articulated byJ.L. Mackie,is that moral realism postulates the existence of "entities or qualities or relations of a very strange sort, utterly different from anything else in the universe. Correspondingly, if we were aware of them it would have to be by some faculty of moral perception or intuition, utterly different from our ordinary ways of knowing everything else."A number of theories have been developed for how we access objective moral truths, includingethical intuitionismandmoral sense theory.

Another criticism of moral realism put forth by Mackie is that it can offer no plausible explanation for cross-cultural moral differences—ethical relativism."The actual variations in the moral codes are more readily explained by the hypothesis that they reflect ways of life than by the hypothesis that they express perceptions, most of them seriously inadequate and badly distorted, of objective values".

Theevolutionary debunking argumentsuggests that because human psychology is primarily produced by evolutionary processes which do not seem to have a reason to be sensitive to moral facts, taking a moral realist stance can only lead tomoral skepticism.The aim of the argument is to undercut the motivations for taking a moral realist stance, namely to be able to assert there are reliable moral standards.

See also

• Cognitivism
• Cornell realism
• Emotivism
• Evolution of morality
• Moral absolutism
• Moral relativism
• Morality
• Nominalism
• The Right and the Good

Further reading

• Moral Realism- article fromInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Moral realism- article fromStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Hume, David(1739).Treatise Concerning Human Nature,edited by L.A. Selby-Bigge. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1888.