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Nabataean Kingdom

Coordinates:30°19′43″N35°26′31″E/ 30.3286°N 35.4419°E/30.3286; 35.4419
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Nabataean Kingdom
𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
3rd century BC–106 AD
The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent
The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent
CapitalPetra
30°19′43″N35°26′31″E/ 30.3286°N 35.4419°E/30.3286; 35.4419
Common languages
Religion
Nabataean religion
Demonym(s)Nabataean
GovernmentMonarchy
King
Historical eraAntiquity
• Established
3rd century BC
•Obodas IrepelsHasmoneaninvasion
90 BC
• Conquered by theRoman Empire
106 AD
CurrencyNabataean Denarius
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Nabataeans
Lihyan
Qedarites
Arabia Petraea
Historical Arab states and dynasties
Ancient Arab states
Kingdom of Qedar800 BC–300 BC
Kingdom of Lihyan600 BC–100 BC
Nabataean Kingdom400 BC–106 AD
Kingdom of Osroene132 BC–244 AD
Emesene Dynasty64 BC–300s AD
Kingdom of Hatra100s–241 AD
Tanukhids196–1100 AD
Ghassanids220–638 AD
Salihids300s–500s AD
Lakhmids300s–602 AD
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Western dynasties and caliphates
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Jawharids1031–1091
Hudids1039–1110
Sumadihids1041–1091
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Nasrids1230–1492
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Arabian Peninsula
Imamate of Oman751–1970
Ziyadids819–1138
Yufirids847–997
Ukhaidhirds865–1066
Rassids897–1962
Qarmatians899–1077
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Jabrids1463–1521
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Ya'arubids1624–1742
Upper Yafa1800–1967
Muscat and Oman1820–1970
Rashidids1836–1921
Qu'aitids1858–1967
Emirate of Beihan1903–1967
Idrisids1906–1934
Mutawakkilite Kingdom1926–1970
East Africa
Makhzumi dynasty(Shewa)896–1279
Nabahani dynasty(Pate Island)1203–1894
Mahdali dynasty(Kilwa)1277–1495
Mazrui dynasty(Mombasa)1746–1828
Sultanate of Zanzibar1856–1964
Nabahani dynasty(Wituland)1858–1895
Tippu Tip's State1860–1887
Current monarchies
'Alawis(Morocco)1631–present
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Al Sabah(Kuwait)1752–present
Al Nahyan(Abu Dhabi)1761–present
Al Mualla(Umm al-Quwain)1775–present
Al Khalifa(Bahrain)1783–present
Al Nuaimi(Ajman)1810–present
Al Maktoum(Dubai)1833–present
Al Thani(Qatar)1868–present
Al Sharqi(Fujairah)1900–present
Hashemites(Jordan)1921–present

TheNabataean Kingdom(Nabataean Aramaic:𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈Nabāṭū), also namedNabatea(/ˌnæbəˈtiːə/), was a political state of theNabataeansduringclassical antiquity.

The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, amassing large wealth and drawing the envy of its neighbors. It stretched south along theTihamahinto theHejaz,up as far north asDamascus,which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC).

Nabataea remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by theRoman Empire,which renamed itArabia Petraea.

History

[edit]

Nabataeans

[edit]
Main article:Nabataeans

The Nabataeans were one among several nomadicBedouinArab tribes that roamed theArabian Desertand moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water.[1]They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished.[1]

The precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today'sYemen,in the southwest of theArabian peninsula,but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia.[1]Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula.[1]

The suggestion that they came from the Hejaz area is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there;nbṭw,the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the earlySemitic languagesof Hejaz.[1]

Similarities between lateNabataean Arabicdialect and the ones found inMesopotamiaduring theNeo-Assyrianperiod, as well as a group with the name of "Nabatu" being listed by theAssyriansas one of several rebellious Arab tribes in the region, suggests a connection between the two.[1]

The Nabataeans might have originated from there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-dayJordan.Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by theAssyriankingAshurbanipal,were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with theNebaiothof theHebrew Bible,the descendants ofIshmael,Abraham's son.[1]

Unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later[when?]emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then[when?]faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten.[1]

Emergence

[edit]
See also:Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations
Trading routes of the ancientMiddle East,whenPetrawas the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through thePort of Gaza

The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins.[2]The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the fourth century BC,[3]although there seems to be evidence of their existence before that time. Aramaic ostraca finds indicate that theAchaemenidprovinceIdumaeamust have been established before 363 B.C. after the failed revolt ofHakorofEgyptandEvagoras Iof Salamis against thePersians.[3]TheQedaritesjoined the failed revolt, and consequently lost significant territory and their privileged position in the frankincense trade, and were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans.[3]It has been argued that the Persians lost interest in the former territory of theEdomite Kingdomafter 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area.[3]All of these changes would have allowed Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from Dedan to Gaza.[3]

The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historianDiodorus Siculuswho lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier byHieronymus of Cardia,one ofAlexander the Great's generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves.[4]Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated byGreekgeneralAntigonus Iin 312 BC.[1]

neither theAssyriansof old, nor the kings of theMedesand Persians, nor yet those of theMacedonianshave been able to enslave them, and... they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. -Diodorus.[1]

Painting of aNabataeantomb,Qasr al-Farid,located atMada'in Saleh,Hejaz,Saudi Arabia

After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. Duringthe conflictbetween Alexander's generals, Antigonus I conquered theLevant,and this brought him to the borders ofEdom,just north of Petra.[5]According toDiodorus Siculus,Antigonus sought to add "the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans"to his existing territories ofSyriaandPhoenicia.[6]The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth.[7]The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transportedfrankincense,myrrhand other spices fromEudaemonin today's Yemen, across the Arabian peninsula, passing throughPetraand ending up in thePort of Gazafor shipment to European markets.[8]

Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot herds and processions. Athenaeus learned that, every year, the Nabataeans gathered for a festival, during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later interpreted by some as the future city of "Petra", "rock" in Greek.)[9]The Antigonids attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. The Antigonids departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200stadionaway, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and - as Diodorus describes it - "all the 4000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about fifty escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";[9][10]Athenaeus himself was killed.[9][11]The Antigonids had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed the Antigonid army in self-defence.[9][10]Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security.[9][12]But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future Antigonid attacks.[9][13][12]

Marble bust ofDemetrius I Poliorcetes.Roman copy from 1st century AD of a Greek original from 3rd century BC.

The Antigonids' second attack was with an army of 4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry led by Antigonus's son,Demetrius"the Besieger".[9][14]The Nabataean scouts spotted the marching enemy and usedsmoke signalsto warn of the approaching Antigonid army.[9][15]The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain - such as deserts and mountain tops - which would be difficult for the Antigonids to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained.[9][15]The Antigonids attacked "the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force.[9][15]A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that Antigonid aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves.[9][12]Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius eventually was forced to accept peace, and withdraw with hostages and gifts.[9][15][12]Demetrius drew Antigonus's displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius's reports ofbitumendeposits in theDead Sea,[9]a valuable commodity that was essential for the embalming process.[15][16]

Antigonus sent an expedition, this time underHieronymus of Cardia,to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea.[9]A force of 6000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows.[9]These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans.[16]Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner.[9]The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product.[17]

The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between thePtolemiesbased in Egypt and theSeleucidsbased in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.[18]

Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at an unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved".[19]While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they felt that their trade interests were threatened by the gradual understanding of the nature ofmonsoonin the Red Sea from the third century BC onward[19](seePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea).

Creation of the Nabataean Kingdom

[edit]
Al-Khaznehwas carved into rock by the Nabataeans in their capital,Petra.

The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases.[20]The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council),[21]which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their presence in Transjordan by the end of the fourth century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus's operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of theHauranin the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-third century BC beyond all doubt, and according to Bowersock, it "establish[es] these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor".[22]Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the Negev.[23]In their early history, before establishing urban centers, the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers.[24]

The second phase saw the creation of the Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC.[20]Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society.[25]The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization and war;[26]the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of theNabatutribe. The earliest evidence of Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the Hauran region, probably Bosra,[27]which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early third century BC.[28]The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the existence of Nabataean monarchy until the second century BC.[28]This nameless Nabataean king perhaps could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the Nabataeans)[19][note 1]to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name,[29]it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.[30]

A recent papyrological discovery, theMilan Papyrus,provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king,[31]providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch.[26]The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus.[32]Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line withStrabo's account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional.[33]In conclusion, Rachel Barkay states that "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the third century BC".[32]The kingship of the Nabataeans was, in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people".[34]For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area.[35]

The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the earlyHellenisticworld.[26]While the Nabataeans didn't attain observable characteristics of a Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be considered a unique entity.[26]

Coin showingAretas IVin military dress
Statue of a soldier in Petra

Aretas I,mentioned in theSecond Book of Maccabeesas "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. His first appearance in history is in II Macc., where thehigh-priest Jason,driven by his rival Menelaus, sought the protection of Aretas.[36]Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisoned Jason.[37]It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem, where Aretas, fearing the retaliation ofAntiochus IV Epiphanesfor "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason.[37]Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC), as a result of the established friendship between the Nabataeans andJudas Maccabaeus,aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.[37]

A Nabataean inscription in theNegevmentions a Nabataean king called Aretas; the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC.[38]However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style,[39]or somewhere in the 2nd century BC.[40]Generally, the inscription is attributed toAretas Iof II Macc., or perhaps as suggested by others, toAretas II.[41]

Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring JewishMaccabeeshad maintained a friendly relationship, the former had sympathized with the Maccabees, who were being mistreated by the Seleucids.[30]TheRomano-JewishhistorianJosephusreport that Judas Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century.[42]The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land ofGalaad.This peaceful meeting between the Nabataeans and two brothers in theFirst Book of Maccabeesseems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launched a surprise attack on the two brothers.[42]Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the Nabataeans in the first book.[42]They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist.[30]The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan's decision to send his brotherJohnto "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over.[30]Again, the Maccabean caravan suffered an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity ofMadaba.[43]This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they were identified as the sons of Amrai.[43]In Bowersock's view, the interpretation of the evidence in the Books of Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them".[43]But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually theRomansalso, had to cope with these people.[43]

The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the second century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.[2]

Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable fromPriene,a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted withAlexandria,which was considered to be a supreme city in the civilized world.[2]

Nabataeans and Hasmoneans

[edit]
Remains of Byzantine church atAvdatin theNegev,which reused elements of a temple built by the Nabataeans to commemorate kingObodas Iand his victories against the Hasmoneans and the Seleucids
Aretas III on a Roman coin, depicted in a pose of submission

The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the JudaeanHasmonean dynasty,and a chief element in the disorders which invitedPompey'sintervention in Judea.[44]

Gaza Citywas the last stop for spices that were carried bytrade caravansbefore shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans.[2]Hasmonean KingAlexander Jannaeusbesieged and occupied Gaza in 96 BC, murdering many of its inhabitants.[2]

Jannaeus then captured several territories inTransjordannorth of Nabataea, along the road toDamascus,including northernMoabandGilead.These territorial acquisitions threatened Nabataean trade interests in Gaza and in Damascus.[45]The Nabataean KingObodas Iregained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in theBattle of Gadaraaround 93 BC.[2]

After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the former were now at odds with the Seleucids, who were concerned about the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories.[46]During theBattle of Cana,the Seleucid kingAntiochus XIIwaged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he wasworshipped as a godby his people. He was buried in theTemple of ObodainAvdat,where inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god".[2]

The kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith during the reign ofAretas III(87 to 62 BC). In 62 BC, a Roman army under the command ofMarcus Aemilius Scaurusbesieged Petra. The defeated king Aretas III paid a tribute to Scaurus and recognizedRomansupremacy over Nabataea.[47]The Nabataean kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expandingRoman Empire,which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean Judea. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became aclient kingdomunder the influence of Rome.[47]

Roman annexation

[edit]
A map of theRoman Empire,at its greatest extent, showing the territory of Trajan's Nabataean conquests in red
Main article:Arabia Petraea

In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperorTrajan,the last king of the Nabataean kingdomRabbel II Soterdied.[47]That might have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire, but the formal reasons and the exact manner of annexation are unknown.[47]Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded byCornelius Palma,the governor ofSyria.Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also fromEgypt.It is clear that by 107 AD Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found inEgypt.The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province ofArabia Petraea.Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading.[47]UnderHadrian,thelimes Arabicusignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modernAqaba) at the head of theGulf of Aqaba.A century later, during the reign ofAlexander Severus,the local issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, apparently because of a sudden change in political ways, such as an invasion by the neo-Persianpower under theSassanid Empire.

The city ofPalmyra,for a time the capital of the breakawayPalmyrene Empire,grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra.[48][49]

Geography

[edit]

The Nabataean Kingdom was situated between the Arabian andSinai Peninsulas.Its northern neighbour was theHasmoneankingdom, and its south western neighbour wasPtolemaic Egypt.Its capital was the city ofRaqmuinJordan,and it included the towns ofBosra,Hegra (Mada'in Saleh), andNitzana/Nessana.

Raqmu, now called Petra, was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several importanttrade routes.One of them was theIncense Routewhich was based around the production of bothmyrrhandfrankincensein southern Arabia,[48]and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^The Zenon archive mentions Dionysius, one of two Greek employees who sought an alternative career of selling women as sex slaves, he was once detained by the Nabataeans for a week during one of his expeditions.[19]Considering what is known of the Nabtaean society's remarkable gender equality at later time, it is likely that they were objecting to the treatment of women in their area, for whom they believed they were responsible in the course of maintaining law and order.[19]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^abcdefghijTaylor 2001,p. 14.
  2. ^abcdefgJane, Taylor (2001).Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans.London, United Kingdom:I.B.Tauris.pp. 14, 17, 30, 31.ISBN9781860645082.Retrieved8 July2016.
  3. ^abcdeWenning 2007,p. 26.
  4. ^Taylor 2001,p. 17.
  5. ^Taylor 2001,p. 30.
  6. ^Bowersock 1994,p. 13.
  7. ^Mills, Bullard & McKnight 1990,p. 598.
  8. ^Taylor 2001,p. 8.
  9. ^abcdefghijklmnopDiodorus Siculus, Book XIX, 95-100,Loeb Classical Library edition, 1954, accessed 27 December 2019
  10. ^abTaylor 2001,p. 31.
  11. ^Groot 1879,p. 7.
  12. ^abcdBowersock 1994,p. 14.
  13. ^Healey 2001,p. 28.
  14. ^McLaughlin 2014,p. 51.
  15. ^abcdeMcLaughlin 2014,p. 52.
  16. ^abHammond 1973,p. 68.
  17. ^Waterfield 2012,p. 123.
  18. ^Salibi 1998,p. 10.
  19. ^abcdeTaylor 2001,p. 38.
  20. ^abAl-Abduljabbar 1995,p. 8.
  21. ^Al-Abduljabbar 1995,p. 136.
  22. ^Bowersock 1994,pp. 17–18.
  23. ^Bowersock 1994,p. 18.
  24. ^Bowes 1998,p. 4.
  25. ^Bowes 1998,p. 106.
  26. ^abcdPearson 2011,p. 10.
  27. ^Milik 2003,p. 275.
  28. ^abAl-Abduljabbar 1995,p. 147.
  29. ^Bowersock 1994,p. 17.
  30. ^abcdTaylor 2001,p. 40.
  31. ^Levy, Daviau & Younker 2016,p. 335.
  32. ^abBarkay 2015,p. 433.
  33. ^Barkay 2011,p. 69.
  34. ^Sullivan 1990,p. 72.
  35. ^Al-Abduljabbar 1995,p. 1.
  36. ^Starcky 1955,p. 84.
  37. ^abcKasher 1988,p. 24.
  38. ^Kropp 2013,p. 41.
  39. ^Sartre 2005,p. 17.
  40. ^Taylor 2001,p. 219.
  41. ^Pearson 2011,p. 13.
  42. ^abcBowersock 1994,p. 19.
  43. ^abcdBowersock 1994,p. 20.
  44. ^Johnson, Paul (1987).A History of the Jews.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.ISBN978-0-297-79091-4.
  45. ^Josephus, Flavius(1981).The Jewish War.Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40.ISBN978-0-14-044420-9.
  46. ^Ball, Warwick (10 June 2016).Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire.Routledge.p. 65.ISBN9781317296355.Retrieved10 July2016.
  47. ^abcdeTaylor, Jane; Petra; p.25-31; Aurum Press Ltd; London; 2005;ISBN9957-451-04-9
  48. ^ab Teller, Matthew; Jordan; p.265; Rough Guides; Sept 2009;ISBN978-1-84836-066-2
  49. ^Greenfield, Jonas Carl (2001).'Al Kanfei Yonah.BRILL.ISBN9004121706.Retrieved27 August2014.

Sources

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Further reading

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  • Benjamin, Jesse. "Of Nubians and Nabateans: Implications of research on neglected dimensions of ancient world history."Journal of Asian and African Studies36, no. 4 (2001): 361–82.
  • Fittschen, Klaus, and G Foerster.Judaea and the Greco-Roman World In the Time of Herod In the Light of Archaeological Evidence: Acts of a Symposium.Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996.
  • Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Nabatean Petra: the royal palace and the Herod connection."Boreas32 (2009): 43–59.
  • Negev, Avraham.Nabatean Archaeology Today.New York:New York University Press,1986.
  • del Rio Sánchez, Francisco, and Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala.Nabatu: The Nabataeans through their Inscriptions.Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2005.
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