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For other uses, seeNarwhal (disambiguation).

Narwhal
Temporal range:Quaternary–Present
↓
[1][2]
Diagram showing a narwhal and scuba diver from the side: the body of the whale is about three times longer than a human.
Size compared to an average human
CITESAppendix II(CITES)[4]
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Monodontidae
Genus: Monodon
Linnaeus,1758
Species:
M. monoceros
Binomial name
Monodon monoceros
Distribution of narwhal populations

Thenarwhal(Monodon monoceros) is aspeciesoftoothed whalenative to theArctic.It is the only member of thegenusMonodon,and one of two living representatives of the familyMonodontidae.The narwhal has a similar build to the closely relatedbeluga whale,with which it overlaps in range and caninterbreed.It has a stocky body with a prominentmelon,reduced flippers, a shallow dorsal ridge, and mottled brown-and-white colouration. It issexually dimorphic;adult males are larger than females and have a singletuskthat can be up to 3 m (9.8 ft) long. The tusk, which is derived from the leftcanine,is thought to serve as a weapon or as a tool for feeding,attracting matesor sensing water salinity. The jointedneck vertebraeand shallow dorsal ridge may allow for agile movements under the ice, or help reducesurface areaand heat loss.

The narwhal inhabitsArctic watersof Canada, Greenland and Russia. Every year, itmigratesto ice-free summering grounds, usually in shallow waters, and oftenreturnsto the same sites in subsequent years. Its diet mainly consists ofpolarandArctic cod,Greenland halibut,cuttlefish,shrimp,andarmhook squid.Plunging at depths of up to 2,370 m (7,780 ft), the narwhal is among the deepest-divingcetaceans.It travels in groups of three to eight, with aggregations of up to 1,000 occurring in the summer months. The narwhal mates in the offshorepack icefrom March to May, and the young are born in July or August of the following year. When communicating, a variety of clicks, whistles and knocks are used.

There are an estimated 170,000 living narwhals, and the species is listed as being ofleast concernby theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN). The population is threatened by theeffects of climate change,such as thereduction in ice cover,and human activities such aspollutionandhunting.The narwhal has been hunted for thousands of years byInuitin northern Canada and Greenland formeatandivory,and regulated subsistence hunts continue.

Taxonomy

The narwhal was scientifically described byCarl Linnaeusin his 1758Systema Naturae.[5]One of the earliest illustrations of the species is a 1555 drawing byOlaus Magnusdepicting a fish-like creature with a horn on its forehead; Magnus called it "Monoceros".[6][7]The word "narwhal" comes from theOld Norsenárhval,meaning 'corpse-whale', which possibly refers to the animal's grey, mottled skin[8][9]and its habit of remaining motionless when at the water's surface, a behaviour known as "logging" that usually happens in the summer.[8]The scientific name,Monodon monoceros,is derived fromGreek:'single-tooth single-horn'.[10]

The narwhal is most closely related to thebeluga whale(Delphinapterus leucas). Together, these two species comprise the onlyextantmembers of the familyMonodontidae,sometimes referred to as the "white whales". TheMonodontidaeare distinguished by their pronouncedmelons(acoustic sensory organs), shortsnoutsand the absence of a truedorsal fin.[11][12]A 2020phylogenetic studybased onmitochondrial DNAsuggested that, around 4.98million years ago(mya), the narwhal split from the beluga whale.[13]

Although the narwhal and beluga are classified as separate genera, there is some evidence that they may, very rarely,interbreed.The remains of an abnormal-looking whale, described by marine zoologists as unlike any known species, were found in West Greenland around 1990. It had features midway between a narwhal and a beluga, indicating that the remains belonged to anarluga(a hybrid between the two species);[14]this was confirmed by a 2019DNA analysis.[15]Whether the hybridcould breedremains unknown.[16][14]

Results of a genetic study reveal thatporpoisesand white whales are closely related, forming a separatecladewhich diverged fromdolphinsabout 11 million years ago.[17]Molecular analysis ofMonodontidaefossils indicate that they had separated fromPhocoenidaearound 10.82 to 20.12 mya; they are considered to be asister taxon.[18]

The fossil speciesCasatia thermophilaofearly Pliocenecentral Italy was described as a possible narwhal ancestor when it was discovered in 2019.Bohaskaia,DenebolaandHaborodelphisare other extinct genera known during thePlioceneof the eastern and western United States.[19][20][21]Fossil evidence shows that ancient white whales lived in tropical waters. They may have migrated to Arctic and subarctic waters in response to changes in the marine food chain.[20]

The followingphylogenetic treeis based on a 2019 study of the familyMonodontidae.[19]

†Kentriodon pernix

Description

Two narwhals at the water surface. They have irregular markings over a white background, extremely small pectoral fins and a large, broad tail.
Narwhals near the water surface
Illustration of a narwhal

The narwhal has a thickset body with a short, blunt snout, small upcurved flippers, and convex to concave tail flukes.[22][23][24]Adults measure in body-to-tail length from 3.0 to 5.5 m (9.8 to 18.0 ft) and weigh 800 to 1,600 kg (1,800 to 3,500 lb). They exhibitsexual dimorphism,with males being larger than females. The body is made up of denseblubberthat ranges in thickness from 50 to 100 mm (2.0 to 3.9 in); this blubber may account for a third of the body mass.[25][24][22]Male narwhals attainsexual maturityat 11 to 13 years of age, reaching a length of 3.9 m (13 ft). Females become sexually mature at a younger age, between 5 and 8 years old, when they are about 3.4 m (11 ft) long.[26]

Thepigmentationof the narwhal is amottled pattern,with blackish-brown markings over a white background.[9]At birth, the skin is light grey, and when sexually mature, white patches grow on thenavelandgenital slit.With age, this variegated colouring gradually fades, turning the skin to an almost pure white state.[23][27]Unlike most whales, the narwhal has a shallow dorsal ridge, rather than a dorsal fin. This is possibly anevolutionary adaptationto make swimming under ice easier, to facilitate rolling, or to reducesurface areaand heat loss.[28][29]The narwhal's neckvertebraeare jointed, instead of being fused together as in most whales; this allows a great range of neck flexibility. These characteristics—a dorsal ridge and jointed neck vertebrae—are shared by the beluga whale.[12]Male and female narwhals have different tail flukes; the former are bent inward, while the latter have a sweep-back on the front margins. This is thought to be an adaptation for reducingdragcaused by the tusk.[24]

Compared with most marine mammals, the narwhal has a higher amount ofmyoglobinin its body, which facilitates deeper dives.[30]Itsskeletal muscleis adapted to withstand prolonged periods of deep-sea foraging. During such activities, oxygen is reserved in the muscles, which are typicallyslow-twitch,allowing for endurance and manoeuvrable motion.[31]

Tusk

The tusk of a male narwhal on display. The white tusk is long and shaped like a spiral.
Narwhal tusk

The most conspicuous characteristic of the male narwhal is a long, spiralled tusk, which is acanine tooth[32]that projects from the left side of the upper jaw.[33]Both sexes are born with a pair of tusks embedded in the upper jaw, which in males erupts at two or three.[23][34]The tusk grows throughout a male's life, reaching a length of 1.5 to 3 m (4.9 to 9.8 ft).[35][36][37]It is hollow and weighs up to 7.45 kg (16.4 lb). Some males may grow two tusks, occurring when the right canine also protrudes through the lip.[34]Females rarely grow tusks: when they do, the tusks are typically smaller than those of males, with less noticeable spirals.[38][39]

The function of the narwhal tusk is debated. Some biologists suggest that narwhals use their tusks in fights, while others argue that they may be of use in feeding. There is, however, ascientific consensusthat tusks aresecondary sexual characteristicswhich indicate social status.[40]The tusk is also a highlyinnervatedsensory organwith millions ofnerve endingsthat connect seawater stimuli to the brain, allowing the narwhal to sense temperature variability in its surroundings.[32]These nerves may be able to pick up the slightest increase or decrease in the magnitude of particles and water pressure.[41][42]According to a 2014 study, male narwhals may exchangeinformationabout the properties of the water they have travelled through by rubbing their tusks together, as opposed to the previously assumed posturing display of aggressive male-to-male rivalry.[32]Dronefootage from August 2016 in Tremblay Sound,Nunavut,revealed that narwhals used their tusks to tap andstunsmallArctic cod,making them easier to catch for feeding.[43][40]Females, who usually do not have tusks, live longer than males, hence the tusk cannot be essential to the animal's survival. It is generally accepted that the primary function of the narwhal tusk is associated withsexual selection.[44]

Vestigial teeth

The narwhal has a single pair of smallvestigialteeth that reside in open tooth sockets in the upper jaw. These teeth, which differ in form and composition, encircle the exposed tooth sockets laterally, posteriorly, and ventrally.[32][45]Vestigial teeth in male narwhals are commonly shed in thepalate.The varied morphology and anatomy of small teeth indicate a path of evolutionary obsolescence.[32][46]

Distribution

Six narwhals near the water surface in the open ocean.
Pod of six narwhals

The narwhal is found in the Atlantic and Russian areas of theArctic Ocean.Individuals are commonly recorded in theCanadian Arctic Archipelago,[47][48]such as in the northern part ofHudson Bay,Hudson Strait,Baffin Bay;off the east coast of Greenland; and in a strip running east from the northern end of Greenland round to eastern Russia (170° east). Land in this strip includesSvalbard,Franz Joseph LandandSevernaya Zemlya.[9]The northernmost sightings of narwhals have occurred north of Franz Joseph Land, at about85° north.[9]There are an estimated 12,500 narwhals in northern Hudson Bay, whereas around 140,000 reside in Baffin Bay.[49]

Migration

Narwhals exhibitseasonal migration,with a highfidelity of returnto preferred ice-free summering grounds, usually in shallow waters. In summer months, they move closer to coasts, often in pods of 10–100. In the winter, they move to offshore, deeper waters under thickpack ice,surfacing in narrow fissures or in wider fractures known asleads.[50]As spring comes, these leads open up into channels and the narwhals return to the coastalbays.[51]Narwhals in Baffin Bay typically travel further north, to northern Canada and Greenland, between June and September. After this period, they travel about 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi) south to theDavis Strait,and stay there until April.[49]During winter, narwhals from Canada and West Greenland regularly visit the pack ice of the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay along thecontinental slopewhich contains less than 5% open water and hosts high densities ofGreenland halibut.[52]

Behaviour and ecology

Photo depicting narwhal tail flukes, which are broad, flat, and horizontal in shape.
Narwhal tail fluke

Narwhals normallycongregate in groupsof three to eight—and sometimes up to twenty—individuals. Groups may be "nurseries" with only females and young, or can contain only post-dispersaljuveniles or adult males ( "bulls" ); mixed groups can occur at any time of year.[22][12]In the summer, several groups come together, forming larger aggregations which can contain 500 to over 1,000 individuals.[25][23]Male narwhals have been observed rubbing each other's tusks, a behaviour known as "tusking".[41][53]

When in their wintering waters, narwhals make some of the deepest dives recorded for cetaceans, diving to at least 800 m (2,620 ft) over 15 times per day, with many dives reaching 1,500 m (4,920 ft).[54][55]The greatest dive depth recorded is 2,370 m (7,780 ft).[54][56]Dives last up to 25 minutes, but can vary in depth, depending on the season and local variation between environments. For example, in the Baffin Bay wintering grounds, narwhals tend to dive deep within the precipitous coasts, typically south of Baffin Bay. This suggests differences in habitat structure, prey availability, or genetic adaptations between subpopulations. In the northern wintering grounds, narwhals do not dive as deep as the southern population, in spite of greater water depths in these areas. This is mainly attributed to prey being concentrated nearer to the surface, which causes narwhals to alter their foraging strategies.[54]

Diet

Compared with other marine mammals, narwhals have a relatively restricted and specialised diet.[57][50]Due to the lack of well-developeddentition,narwhals are believed to feed by swimming close to prey andsuckingthem into the mouth.[58]A study of the stomach contents of 73 narwhals found Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) to be the most commonly consumed prey, followed by Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides). Large quantities of Boreo-Atlantic armhook squid (Gonatus fabricii) were discovered. Males were more likely than females to consume two additional prey species: polar cod (Arctogadus glacialis) and redfish (Sebastes marinus), both of which are found in depths of more than 500 m (1,600 ft). The study also concluded that the size of prey did not differ among genders or ages.[59]Other items found in stomachs have includedwolffish,capelin,skateeggs and sometimes rocks.[25][52][50]

Narwhal diet varies by season. In winter, narwhals feed ondemersalprey, mostlyflatfish,under dense pack ice. During the summer, they eat mostly Arctic cod and Greenland halibut, with other fish such as polar cod making up the remainder of their diet.[59]Narwhals consume more food in the winter months than they do in summer.[52][50]

Breeding

Most female narwhals reproduce by the time they are six to eight years old.[8]Courtshipandmatingbehaviour for the species has been recorded from March to May, when they are in offshore pack ice, and is thought to involve a dominant male mating with several partners. The averagegestationlasts 15 months; births appear to be most frequent between July and August. A female has a birth interval of around 2–3 years.[26][60][61]As with most marine mammals, only a single young is born, averaging 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length with white or light grey pigmentation.[62][63]Summer population surveys along different coastal inlets ofBaffin Islandfound that calf numbers varied from 0.05% of 35,000 inAdmiralty Inlet,to 5% of 10,000 total inEclipse Sound.These findings suggest that higher calf counts may reflect calving and nursery habitats in favourable inlets.[64]

Newborn calves begin their lives with a thin layer of blubber. The blubber thickens as theynursetheir mother's milk, which is rich in fat; calves are dependent on milk for about 20 months.[65][25]This long lactation period gives calves time to learn skills they will need to survive as they mature.[65][64]

Narwhals are among the few animals that undergomenopauseand live for decades after they have finished breeding. Females in this phase may continue to protect calves in the pod.[26]A 2024 study concluded that five species ofOdontocetievolved menopause to acquire higher overall longevity, though their reproductive periods did not change. To explain this, scientists hypothesised that calves of the five Odontoceti species require the assistance of menopausal females for an enhanced chance at survival, as they are extremely difficult for a single female to successfully rear.[66]

Communication

See also:Whale vocalization

Like most toothed whales, narwhals use sound to navigate and hunt for food. They primarily vocalise through clicks, whistles and knocks, created by air movement between chambers near theblowhole.[67]The frequency of these sounds ranges from 0.3 to 125hertz,while those used forecholocationtypically fall between 19 and 48 hertz.[68][69]Sounds are reflected off the sloping front of the skull and focused by the animal's melon, which can be controlled through surrounding musculature.[70]Echolocation clicks are used for detecting prey and locating barriers at short distances.[71]Whistles and throbs are most commonly used to communicate with other pod members.[72]Calls recorded from the same pod are more similar than calls from different pods, suggesting the possibility of group- or individual-specific calls. Narwhals sometimes adjust the duration and pitch of their pulsed calls to maximise sound propagation in varying acoustic environments.[73][74]Other sounds produced by narwhals include trumpeting and "squeaking-door sounds".[8]The narwhal vocal repertoire is similar to that of the beluga whale. However, the frequency ranges, durations, and repetition rates of narwhal clicks differ from those of belugas.[75]

Longevity and mortality factors

Polar bear feeding/scavenging on a beached narwhal carcass.
A polar bearscavenginga narwhal carcass

Age determination techniques using the number ofperiosteumlayers in thelower jawreveal that narwhals live an average of 50 years, though techniques usingamino acid datingfrom thelensof the eyes suggest that female narwhals can reach 115±10 years and male narwhals can live to 84±9 years.[76]

Death bysuffocationoften occurs when narwhals fail to migrate before theArctic freezes overin late autumn. This is known as "sea-ice entrapment".[25][77]Narwhals drown if open water is no longer accessible and ice is too thick for them to break through. Breathing holes in ice may be up to 1,450 m (4,760 ft) apart, which limits the use of foraging grounds. These holes must be at least 0.5 m (1.6 ft) wide to allow an adult whale to breathe.[30]Narwhals also die ofstarvationfrom entrapment events.[25]

In 1914–1915, around 600 narwhal carcasses were discovered after entrapment events, most occurring in areas such asDisko Bay.In the largest entrapment in 1915 inWest Greenland,over 1,000 narwhals were trapped under the ice.[78]Several cases of sea entrapment were recorded in 2008–2010, during the Arctic winter, including in some places where such events had never been recorded before.[77]This suggests later departure dates from summering grounds. Wind and currents move sea ice from adjacent locations to Greenland, leading to fluctuations in concentration. Due to their tendency of returning to the same areas, changes in weather and ice conditions are not always associated with narwhal movement toward open water. It is currently unclear to what extent sea ice changes pose a danger to narwhals.[77][79][57]

Narwhals are preyed upon bypolar bearsandorcas.In some instances, the former have been recorded waiting at breathing holes for young narwhals, while the latter were observed surrounding and killing entire narwhal pods.[25][80][81][82]To escape predators such as orcas, narwhals may use prolonged submersion to hide underice floesrather than relying on speed.[30]

Researchers foundBrucellain the bloodstreams of numerous narwhals throughout the course of a 19-year study. They were also recorded withwhale licespecies such asCyamus monodontisandCyamus nodosus.OtherpathogensincludeToxoplasma gondii,morbillivirus,andpapillomavirus.[83]In 2018, a female narwhal hadAlpha herpesvirusin her system.[84]

Conservation

The narwhal is listed as a species ofleast concernby theIUCN Red List.As of 2017, the global population is estimated to be 123,000 mature individuals out of a total of 170,000. There were about 12,000 narwhals in Northern Hudson Bay in 2011, and around 49,000 nearSomerset Islandin 2013. There are approximately a total of 35,000 inAdmiralty Inlet,10,000 in Eclipse Sound, 17,000 inEastern Baffin Bay,and 12,000 inJones Sound.Population numbers inSmith Sound,Inglefield BredningandMelville Bayare 16,000, 8,000 and 3,000, respectively. There are roughly 800 narwhals in the waters off Svalbard.[3]

In the 1972Marine Mammal Protection Act,the United States banned imports of products made from narwhal parts.[3]They are listed on Appendix II of theConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES) andConvention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(CMS). These committees restrict international trading of live animals and their body parts, as well as implement sustainable action plans.[3][4][85]The species is also classified as special concern under theCommittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada(COSEWIC), which aims to classify the risk levels of species in the country.[49][86]

Threats

Data showing the number of caught belugas and narwhals from 1954 to 2014. Belugas were reported from the US, Russia, Canada and Greenland, while narwhals were recorded from Canada and Russia.
Beluga and narwhal catches (1954–2014)

Narwhals are hunted for their skin,meat,teeth, tusks andcarved vertebrae,which are commercially traded. About 1,000 narwhals are killed per year: 600 in Canada and 400 in Greenland. Canadian catches were steady at this level in the 1970s, dropped to 300–400 per year in the late 1980s and 1990s and have risen again since 1999. Greenland caught more, 700–900 per year, in the 1980s and 1990s.[87]

Narwhal tusks are sold both carved and uncarved in Canada[88][89]and Greenland.[90]Per hunted narwhal, an average of one or two vertebrae and one or two teeth are sold.[88]In Greenland, the skin (muktuk) is sold commercially tofish factories,[90]and in Canada to other communities.[88]One estimate of the annual gross value received from narwhal hunts in Hudson Bay in 2013 wasCA$6,500(US$6,300) per narwhal, of whichCA$4,570(US$4,440) was for skin and meat. The net income after subtracting costs in time and equipment, was a loss ofCA$7(US$6.80) per narwhal. Hunts receivesubsidies,but they continue mainly to support tradition, rather than for profit. Economic analysis noted thatwhale watchingmay be an alternate source of revenue.[88]

As narwhals grow,bioaccumulationof heavy metals takes place.[91]It is thought thatpollution in the oceanis the primary cause of bioaccumulation in marine mammals; this may lead to health problems for the narwhal population.[92]When bioaccumulating, numerous metals appear in the blubber, liver, kidney and musculature. A study found that the blubber was nearly devoid of these metals, whereas the liver and kidneys had a dense concentration of them. Relative to the liver, the kidney has a greater concentration ofzincandcadmium,whilelead,copperandmercurywere not nearly as abundant. Individuals of different weight and sex showed dissimilarities in the concentration of metals in their organs.[93]

Narwhals are one of the Arctic marine mammals most vulnerable toclimate change[51]due to sea ice decline, especially in their northern wintering grounds such as the Baffin Bay and Davis Strait regions. Satellite data collected from these areas shows the amount of sea ice has been markedly reduced from what it was previously.[94]It is thought that narwhals' foraging ranges reflect patterns they acquired early in life, which improves their capacity to obtain the food supplies they need for the winter. This strategy focuses on strongsite fidelityrather than individual-level responses to local prey distribution, resulting in focal foraging areas during the winter. As such, despite changing conditions, narwhals will continue to return to the same areas during migration.[94]As narwhals emerged during thelate Plioceneepoch, they must have undergone adaptation toglacialsand climate change.[95]

Reduction in sea ice has possibly led to increased exposure to predation. In 2002, hunters inSiorapalukexperienced an increase in the number of caught narwhals, but this increase did not seem to be linked to enhanced endeavour,[96]implying that climate change may be making the narwhal more vulnerable to hunting. Scientists recommend assessing population numbers, assigning sustainablequotas,and ensuring local acceptance of sustainable development.Seismic surveysassociated withoil explorationdisrupt the narwhal's normal migration patterns. These disturbed migrations may also be associated with increased sea ice entrapment.[97]

Relationship with humans

Narwhals have coexisted alongsidecircumpolar peoplesfor millennia.[9]Their long, distinctive tusks were often held with fascination throughout human history.[98]Depictions of narwhals in paintings such asThe Lady and the Unicornhave found a prevalent place inart.[99]The ivory tusks were prized for their supposed healing powers, and were worn on staffs and thrones.[100]

Inuit

An Inuit man holding the head of a dead narwhal in the Arctic.
Hunter posing next to a narwhal head (1903)

Narwhals have been hunted byInuitto the same extent as other sea mammals, such assealsandwhales.Almost all parts of the narwhal—the meat, skin, blubber and organs—are consumed.Muktuk,the raw skin and attached blubber, is considered a delicacy. As a custom, one or two vertebrae per animal are used for tools andart.[88][9]The skin is an important source ofvitamin C,which is otherwise difficult to obtain in the Arctic Circle. In some places in Greenland, such asQaanaaq,traditional hunting methods are used and whales areharpoonedfrom handmadekayaks.In other parts of Greenland and Northern Canada,high-speed boatsandhunting riflesare used.[9]

InInuit legend,the narwhal's tusk was created when a woman with harpoon rope tied around her waist was dragged into the ocean after the harpoon had stuck into a large narwhal. She was thentransformedinto a narwhal; her hair, which she was wearing in atwisted knot,became the spiralling narwhal tusk.[101]

Tusk trade

A goblet composed of narwhal tusk from Milan, Italy. The goblet is covered with jewels, has snake-shaped handles and a depiction of a woman at the top.
Agobletmade from narwhal tusk inMilan,Italy

The narwhal tusk has been highly sought-after in Europe for centuries. This stems from a medieval belief that narwhal tusks were thehornsof the legendaryunicorn.[102][103][104]According to some theories,VikingsandGreenland Norsebegan trade of narwhal tusks, which, via European channels, would later reach markets in theMiddle EastandEast Asia.The idea thatNorsemenhunted narwhals was once held, but was never confirmed and is now considered improbable.[105][106]

Across medieval Europe, narwhal tusks were given as state gifts to kings and queens.[103]In the 18th and 19th centuries, the price tag of tusks was said to be a couple of hundred times greater than its weight ingold.[100]Ivan the Terriblehad a jewellery-covered narwhal tusk on his deathbed,[103]whileElizabeth Ireceived one reportedly valued at £10,000pounds sterling[107]from theprivateerMartin Frobisher,who proposed that the tusk was from a "sea-unicorne". Both items were staples incabinets of curiosities.[108][109]

Considered to have magical properties, narwhal tusks were used to counter poisoning, and all sorts of diseases such asmeaslesandrubella.[99][110][111]The rise of science towards the end of the 17th century led to a decreased belief inmagicandalchemy.After the unicorn notion was scientifically refuted, narwhal tusks were rarely employed for magical purposes.[112][113]

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Further reading

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