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Ndyuka people

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Ndyuka
Total population
90,000[1](2014, est.)
Regions with significant populations
Marowijne&Tapanahony,Suriname26,000
Paramaribo& suburbs30,000
French Guiana26,500
Netherlands7,500
Languages
Ndyuka,Dutch,French&Sranan Tongo
Religion
Christianity&Winti
Related ethnic groups
Akans,Kwinti,Afro-SurinameseandGhanaian people
Granmanof the Ndyuka people
Incumbent
Bono Velanti[2]
since 2015
ResidenceDiitabiki
Maroonwomen carrying out daily chores and socializing,Suriname River,1955

TheNdyuka people(also spelled 'Djuka') orAukan people(Okanisi), are one of sixMaroon peoples(formerly called "Bush Negroes", which also has pejorative tinges) in the Republic ofSurinameand one of the Maroon peoples inFrench Guiana.The Aukan or Ndyuka speak theNdyuka language.They are subdivided into theOpu,who live upstream of theTapanahony Riverin theTapanahonyresort of southeastern Suriname, and theBilo,who live downstream of that river inMarowijne District.

Dugout canoesat NdyukaMaroonvillage,Suriname River,1955

The most important towns areMoengo,the largest town in Marowijne District, andDiitabiki(old name: Drietabbetje) which is the residence of thegranman(paramount chief) of the Ndyuka people since 1950.[3]

They further subdivide themselves into twelvematrilinearkinship groups calledlo. There is a thirteenth group, that of thegranman.[4]

History

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The Ndyuka and related people are ofAfricandescent, were enslaved and transported as cargo by the Dutch to Suriname in the 17–18th century to work on Dutch-owned colonial plantations. Those who escaped fled deep into the rainforests where they established Maroon communities along rivers in mostly southeastern Suriname and parts of neighboringFrench Guianaand where their culture adopted elements ofNative Americancultures. It is rare for Ndyuka people to marry outside the group, "so they remain genetically close to their African ancestors."[5]

In 1757, a large slave revolt took place at six wood plantations near the Tempati Creek. The runaway slaves joined an existing group of Maroons. TheSociety of Surinamewas concerned about the size and strength of the group, therefore Captain Zobre was dispatched on 30 July 1759 to negotiate. Zobre returned with a temporary ceasefire agreement, and information that the tribe consisted of six villages with an estimated population of 2,000 people. The second expedition was less successful: the Ndyuka were disappointed in gifts like mirrors and said that they preferred guns and ammunition. They also wanted the presence of the plantation owners of theJodensavanneat the negotiations.[6]

On 10 October 1760, the Ndyuka signed a treaty with the Dutch colonizers,[7]recognizing territorial autonomy.[8]Day of the Maroons has been observed as a national holiday in Suriname on 10 October since 2010.[7]

Autonomous people

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From 1761, many Ndyuka gradually moved southwards from Marowijne District in order to protect themselves from thecolonists,and started to build camps on theTapanahoni Riverdispelling the indigenousTiriyó.Slaves who had recently fled from Armina andBoven Commewijnewere stationed near the confluence of the Tapanahoni andLawa Riverto guard against attacks by theAluku.[9]In December 1791, Philip Stoelman founded amilitary outpostonStoelmanseiland,thus establishing a militarised border between the Ndyuka held territory and the Colony of Suriname.[10]Tapanahony was off-limits to white settlers, and was not explored until the beginning of the 20th century.[11]

Trade

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Even though Tapanahony was isolated and generally neglected by the government, it was not completelyself-sufficient.Trade was encouraged by both sides; article 7 of the Treaty can be regarded as afree-trade agreement.[12]Between 1880 and 1930,[13]the Ndyuka managed to gain a near monopoly on the freight trade betweenAlbina, SurinameandSaint-Laurent-du-Maroni,French Guiana in the north, and the Surinamese and French Guianese interiors in the south. In 1921, the Maroon FreighterStrikewas called and lasted three months. The strike had serious economic consequences,[14]and severely disrupted theBalatáand gold industry in both countries.[15]Governorvan Heemstraeven threatened to end the autonomy of the Ndyuka over the strike.[16]

Development and health care

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In 1919, a pilot project to improve agriculture, education and medical care failed, because the necessary funds were never supplied. The Ndyuka were later blamed because they resisted the imposition oftaxation.[17]On 6 May 1924,Pieter Walther Hering[nl]postulated in theColonial States:"Economically, the Bushnegroes thus far have had little significance for the Colony, and that is not their fault, but the Dutch Government's [fault], which has neglected these people, and tolerated that today, in the 20th century, we are still talking about Bushnegroes."[18]

Generally, medical care was provided free for Maroons who journeyed to the coastal area. An attempt in 1913 to charge for medical care in the hospitals was ignored in practice, and later revoked by GovernorJohannes Kielstra,because it was better for the overall sanitary conditions.[19]In a 1943 meeting between the Governor and thegranmans the population decline in the tribal areas was discussed. Thegranmans talked about alarming rates oftuberculosis,malaria, and infertility. The proposed solution was to send a medical team into the tribal areas, and make people aware about the dangers ofinbreeding.[20]In 1946,Medische Zendingwas put in charge of the health care in tribal areas.[21]The improved medical care resulted in a rapid population growth.[1][22]

Interior War

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Main article:Surinamese Interior War

In the late 1980s, theSurinamese Interior Warwas fought between theSuriname National Armyand a rebel group known as theJungle Commando,led byRonnie Brunswijk.The civil war resulted in a refugee crisis intoFrench Guianaespecially from the Marowijne District.[23]Even though Brunswijk was a Ndyuka,Gaanman Gazon,the paramount chief, refused to take sides in the conflict,[24]and maintained strict neutrality in the Tapanahony resort.[25]On 26 May 1987, Gazon published a plea to the international community for mediation.[26][27]

Current situation

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Moengo(2008)

In the last decades of the 20th century a large number of the Ndyuka people began moving from their ancestral villages to the coast, especially in and aroundParamaribo,the country's capital.[1]Their motivations for moving were mainly economic. As of 2014, of the estimated 90,000 Ndyukas, only 26,000 live in the tribal lands, while 30,000 live in and aroundParamaribo,21,000 in French Guiana and 7,500 in the Netherlands.[1]

On 19 August 2000, akabiten(captain) was installed for the Ndyuka Maroon community indiaspora.InUtrecht,André R.M. Pakosiewas installed as captain for theNetherlands.[28]

On 13 June 2020, Ronnie Brunswijk was electedVice President of Surinameby acclamation in anuncontested election.[29]He was inaugurated on 16 July[30]as the first Maroon in Suriname to serve as vice president.[31]

Governance

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The Treaty of 1760 allowed the Ndyuka privileges, but also imposed restrictions like the return of runaway slaves, and in case of an external war, they must provide an army to fight with theSuriname National Army.[6]

Originally the tribe was free to settle anywhere with permission providing it was at a distance of at least ten hours from the plantations.[6]That definition was rather vague, and in 1837, it was changed to a delimited area around theCottica Riverin Marowijne District, and theTapanahony River.[32]

The paramount chief of the Ndyuka is thegranman.Below thegranmanare thekabitens(captains) followed by thebasiyas(aldermen). Thestam lanticonsists of all thekabitensandbasiyaswho meet at least once a year under the authority of thegranmanand decide the policy for the entire tribe.[33]

A village has alo lanti(council) consisting of thekabitensandbasiyasof the village who are advised by a council of elders. Thelo lantiacts as the local government. In case of important decisions, the whole village participates and a decision is taken on the basis of consensus.[6]

The resorts in the Marowijne District are governed by a Resort Council,[34]democratically elected at the General Election.[35]This has caused as an overlap withlo lanti.The decentralization commission was aware of the problem in 2007, but as of 2020, the two systems existed side by side.[36]

For Tapanahony, a district commissioner is appointed to represent the Surinamese government.[37]This is a continuation of theposthouders(post holders) which were installed after the Treaty to represent the state.[38]

In the draft agreement, there was a provision for an independent judicial system except for the crimes which could carry a death sentence.[6]The article caused much debate, and was dropped altogether in the final agreement.[39]In practice an independent judicial system was in operation except for people accused of major crimes who were turned over to the Suriname government.[22]In the second half of the 20th century, the system became obsolete for criminal cases.[40]

Even though the Treaty has significant implications for Suriname, it was not mentioned in the Government Regulations of 1865 nor in the Constitution of 1936.[41]In 1975, in preparation of theIndependence of Suriname,the treaties with the Maroons were subject to much debate in both theDutchandSurinameseparliaments,[42]however the Maroon autonomy has not been mentioned once in both theConstitution of Surinameor the Declaration of Independence.[43]The Treaty deals with the rights and obligations of the tribe, however the Constitution does not mention the tribe or its government, therefore if thegranmansays no, the issue can be pushed through, because the legal position of thegranmanhas not been defined.[44]

Nevertheless, the treaties are still in effect.[45]In 2005, theInter-American Court of Human Rightsruled on the 1986Moiwanamassacre. The court upheld the 1760 Treaty, and determined that "the Moiwana community members may be considered the legitimate owners of their traditional lands."[46]

Lifestyle

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Body of NdyukaMaroonchild brought before amedicine man,Suriname River,Suriname,South America, 1955

TheMilwaukee Public Museumsays the following about the Ndyuka and their way ofMaroonlife:

Among the Ndyuka, as in all other Maroon tribes, everyone works on artistic projects in everyday activities, and are admired for their excellent skill in woodcarving, calabash carving, and textile arts. Social relationships and tokens of love and affection are the central reason for the production of art. Historically, only men practiced woodcarving, while women did calabash carving and textile arts. Because objects were created as gifts men have large collections of clothes, capes, and breech clothes from wives and past lovers, while women own large collections of wooden objects like food stirrers, stools, trays, and peanut grinding plates. Calabash carving, also prevalent but done mostly by women, produces spoons and dishes with intricate designs for everyday use. Women's textile arts, produced as exchange gifts for a husband or lover, have transformed greatly as access to trade cotton from the coast has increased. Trends in fashion change quickly, utilizing elaborate embroidery, appliqué, and patchwork, with women freely borrowing from others while making it their own.[5]

Religion

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The traditional religion of the Ndyuka wasWinti,a synthesis of African religion traditions.[47]The Marowijne District was accessible to outsiders, and theCatholicandMoravian Churchfounded churches and schools first in neighbouringAlbinaand later in the Maroon villages.[48]Attempts to convert Tapanahony were not successful at first,[49]until 1864 when the Moravian Church sent the Maroon missionaryJohannes Kingto thegranman.[50]The extensive traditional funerary rites are generally practised,[51]and Winti is a major religion, however the majority are Christians.[52]

Notable people

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References

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  1. ^abcdRichard Price(2013)."The Maroon Population Explosion: Suriname and Guyane".New West Indian Guide.New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids Volume 87: Issue 3–4.87(3–4): 323–327.doi:10.1163/22134360-12340110.S2CID140546216.Retrieved25 July2020.
  2. ^"Beëdiging Granman Bono Velantie".Ministerie van Regionale Ontwikkeling.3 February 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 23 October 2017.Retrieved23 October2017.
  3. ^"Een geschiedenis van de Surinaamse literatuur. Deel 2".Digital Library for Dutch Literature(in Dutch). 2002.Retrieved21 May2020.
  4. ^Maroon Cosmopolitics: Personhood, Creativity and Incorporation
  5. ^ab"Ndyuka Collection".Milwaukee Public Museum.Retrieved20 July2020.
  6. ^abcdeScholtens 1994,p. 20.
  7. ^ab"Museumstof 251: 10 oktober – Dag der Marrons".Surinaams Museum(in Dutch). 9 October 2015.Retrieved10 October2021.
  8. ^"The Ndyuka Treaty Of 1760: A Conversation with Granman Gazon."culturalsurvival.org
  9. ^"Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië – Page 154 – Boschnegers"(PDF).Digital Library for Dutch Literature(in Dutch). 1916.Retrieved22 May2020.
  10. ^Silvia de Groot (1970). "Rebellie der Zwarte Jagers. De nasleep van de Bonni-oorlogen 1788–1809".De Gids(in Dutch).
  11. ^"Distrikt Sipaliwini".Suriname.nu(in Dutch).Retrieved22 May2020.
  12. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 22: "7. They may trade with the plantation area, but not in groups greater than ten or twelve men."
  13. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 128.
  14. ^Bonno Thoden van Velzen."De grote staking van de Marron vrachtvaarders, 1921".Suriname.nu(in Dutch).Retrieved25 July2020.
  15. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 72.
  16. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 79.
  17. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 86.
  18. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 87: "Als economische elementen zijn de boschnegers tot dusver van weinig beteekenis voor de kolonie en dat is niet hun schuld, maar van de Nederlandsche Regeering, die de plichten tegenover deze menschen heeft verwaarloosd en getolereerd dat thans nog in de 20e eeuw hier gesproken moet worden van boschnegers"
  19. ^Scholten 1994,p. 90.
  20. ^Beet, Chris de (1981).People in between: the Matawai Maroons of Suriname(PDF).Krips Repro, Meppel. p. 375.{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)
  21. ^"Historie".Medische Zorg(in Dutch).Retrieved25 July2020.
  22. ^abKöbben 1968,p. 68.
  23. ^"Distrikt Marowijne".Suriname.nu(in Dutch).Retrieved21 May2020.
  24. ^"Aucaans opperhoofd Matodja Gazon overleden".Waterkant(in Dutch).Retrieved20 July2020.
  25. ^Thoden van Velzen, Bonno (1988)."De Brunswijk-opstand: Antropologische kanttekeningen bij de Surinaamse burgeroorlog – Page 20".University of Groningen(in Dutch). Sociologische Gids.
  26. ^Sylvia de Groot (29 May 1987). "De bosnegers vanGranman Gazonzijn vogelvrij ".NRC Handelsblad.My people are in a great emergency. (...) I don't know how to resolve it anymore, and I cannot stop the struggle which has reached a climax. I urgently request the Netherlands and the United States to help. Not with an invasion, but with a mediation between the Surinamese governments and the Jungle Commando in order to persuade them to lay down the battle axe. Too many people have died already. (...)
    Original in Dutch: Mijn volk is in grote nood. (...) Ik weet niet meer hoe er uit te komen, en ik kan de strijd die een climax heeft bereikt niet stoppen. Ik doe een dringend beroep op Nederland en Amerika om te helpen. Niet met een invasie, maar met bemiddeling om de Surinaamse regering en het jungle-commando te bewegen de strijdbijl neer te leggen. Er zijn al te veel doden gevallen. (...)
  27. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 210.
  28. ^"THE MAROONS OF Suriname".Archived fromthe originalon 10 September 2004.Retrieved23 May2020.
  29. ^"Live blog: Verkiezing president en vicepresident Suriname".De Ware Tijd(in Dutch).Retrieved13 July2020.
  30. ^"Inauguratie nieuwe president van Suriname op Onafhankelijkheidsplein".Waterkant(in Dutch).Retrieved13 July2020.
  31. ^ab"Marronorganisaties blij met Brunswijk als vp-kandidaat".De Ware Tijd(in Dutch).Retrieved13 July2020.
  32. ^Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2005,p. 2514.
  33. ^Pakosie 1990,p. 876.
  34. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 99.
  35. ^"Grondwet van de Republiek Suriname – Article 159–168".Suriname.nu(in Dutch).Retrieved24 July2020.
  36. ^Ellen-Rose Kambel (28 May 2007)."Het traditioneel gezag en het Decentralisatie programma in Suriname"(PDF).Decentralisatie.org(in Dutch). p. 23.Retrieved25 July2020.
  37. ^Plan Bureau 2014,p. 168.
  38. ^Sylvia de Groot (1983)."Tussen twee werelden: de intermediair".Digital Library for Dutch Literature.OSO Tijdschrift voor Surinaamse Taalkunde, Letterkunde en Geschiedenis. Jaargang 2 (in Dutch). p. 123.Retrieved25 July2020.
  39. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 21.
  40. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 26.
  41. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 98.
  42. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 24.
  43. ^Pakosie 1990,p. 873.
  44. ^Ellen de Vries (23 November 2005)."Nergens ligt vast wat de Granman mag"(PDF).Trouw via Ellen de Vries(in Dutch).Retrieved28 July2020.
  45. ^Scholtens 1994,p. 110.
  46. ^Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2005,p. 2531.
  47. ^Richard Price (1987)."Encyclopedia of Religions"(PDF).Retrieved24 July2020.
  48. ^"Distrikt Marowijne".Anda Suriname(in Dutch).Retrieved24 July2020.
  49. ^"Levende-Doden ~ Tussen kruis en kalebas".Rozenberg Quarterly(in Dutch).Retrieved24 July2020.
  50. ^"Johannes King 1830 – 1899. Een mens met grote overtuiging".Digital Library for Dutch Literature(in Dutch). 1964. p. 58.
  51. ^André R.M. Pakosie (1995)."Tuka Klaagliederen bij de Ndyuka 'betekenis en achterliggende gedachten'".Digital Library for Dutch Literature(in Dutch).Retrieved24 July2020.
  52. ^"Aukan, Ndjuka in Suriname".Joshua Project.Retrieved24 July2020.
  53. ^"A 25 ans, Lénaïck Adam est le nouveau député" En Marche "en Guyane"(in French).la1ere.francetvinfo.Retrieved20 June2022.
  54. ^"Vaarwel van een koning".Werkgroup Caraibische Letteren(in Dutch).Retrieved20 July2020.
  55. ^"Surinaamse schrijvers en dichters".Digital Library for Dutch Literature(in Dutch). 1989.Retrieved20 July2020.

Bibliography

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  • Media related toNdyukaat Wikimedia Commons
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