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Nero
Facing male bust
Head of Nero from an oversized statue.Glyptothek,Munich
Roman emperor
Reign13 October 54 – 9 June 68
PredecessorClaudius
SuccessorGalba
BornLuciusDomitiusAhenobarbus
15 December AD 37
Antium,Italy,Roman Empire
Died9 June AD 68 (aged 30)
outside Rome, Italy
Burial
Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi,Pincian Hill,Rome
Spouses
IssueClaudia Augusta
Names
Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus
Regnal name
Nero Claudius CaesarAugustusGermanicus
DynastyJulio-Claudian
Father
MotherAgrippina the Younger
Roman imperial dynasties
Julio-Claudian dynasty
Chronology
27 BC – AD 14
AD 14–37
AD 37–41
AD 41–54
AD 54–68
Preceded by
Roman Republic		 Followed by
Year of the Four Emperors

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus(/ˈnɪəroʊ/NEER-oh;bornLucius Domitius Ahenobarbus;15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was aRoman emperorand the final emperor of theJulio-Claudian dynasty,reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.

Nero was born atAntiumin AD 37, the son ofGnaeus Domitius AhenobarbusandAgrippina the Younger(great-granddaughter of the emperorAugustus). Nero was three when his father died.[1]By the time Nero turned eleven,[2]his mother marriedEmperor Claudius,who thenadoptedNero as his heir. Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne with the backing of thePraetorian Guardand the Senate. In the early years of his reign, Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutorSeneca the Younger,and hispraetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus,but sought to rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power struggle between Nero and his mother reached its climax when he orchestrated her murder. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of both his wifeClaudia Octavia– supposedly so he could marryPoppaea Sabina– and his stepbrotherBritannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused ondiplomacy,trade,andculture.He ordered the construction ofamphitheaters,and promotedathletic games and contests.He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, andcharioteer,which scandalized his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers, andinfamous persons.However, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented by the Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's reign, the generalCorbulofought theRoman–Parthian War of 58–63,and made peace with the hostileParthian Empire.The Roman generalSuetonius Paulinusquashed a majorrevoltinBritainled by queenBoudica.TheBosporan Kingdomwas brieflyannexedto the empire, and theFirst Jewish–Roman Warbegan. When the Roman senatorVindexrebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperorGalba,Nero was declared a public enemy and condemned to deathin absentia.He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period ofcivil warknown as theYear of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. The historianTacitusclaims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed theGreat Fire of Romewas instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House".Tacitus claims Nero seizedChristiansas scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, but personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nerohad not died and would return.After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn"to gain popular support.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37 in Antium (modernAnzio), eight months after the death ofTiberius.[3][4]He was an only-child, the son of the politicianGnaeus Domitius AhenobarbusandAgrippina the Younger.His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperorCaligula.[5]Nero was also the great-great-grandson of former emperorAugustus(descended from Augustus' only daughter,Julia).[6]

Statue of Nero in his birthplace ofAnzio,Italy

The ancient biographerSuetonius,who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violentgladiatorgames. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position".[6]Suetonius also mentions that when Nero's father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the birth of his son, he replied that any child born to him and Agrippina would have a detestable nature and become a public danger.[3]

Domitius died in AD 41. A few years before his father's death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal.[6]His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina andJulia Livilla,were exiled to a remote island in theMediterranean Sea.[7]His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula.[4]Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal auntDomitia Lepida,the mother of later emperorClaudius's third wife,Messalina.[8]

After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new emperor. Nero's mother married Claudius in AD 49, becoming his fourth wife.[i][4]On 25 February AD 50,[ii]Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero as his son, giving him the new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".[iii][12]Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.[13]Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making."[14]However,David Shotternoted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brotherBritannicuswas more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.[15]

Relief from theSebasteiondepicting Nero and his mother,Agrippina

Nero formally entered public life as an adult in AD 51 while 13 years old.[12]When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister),Claudia Octavia.Between the years AD 51 and AD 53, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; theApameans(requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony ofBologna,after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire.[14]

Claudiusdied in AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death...has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina, due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son." He notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historianJosephuswas uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor.[16]Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-makerLocustaprepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servantHalotus.Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctorXenophonto administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived.[16]Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina.[iv]Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. InApocolocyntosis,Seneca the Youngerdoes not mention mushrooms at all.[18]Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars.[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) withAfranius Burrus(Nero's future guide).[20]Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was subsequently able to assume power without incident.[4]

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign areTacitus,SuetoniusandCassius Dio.[21]They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".[22][23]Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public-work and charities to ease economic troubles.[24]

Early reign

Bust of Nero as pharaoh

Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16. His tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".[25]H. H. Scullardwrites that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trialsintra cubiculum,to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators. "[26]His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by theRoman Senate.[27]

Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile;Marcus Junius Silanus,a great-grandson of Augustus; andNarcissus.[26]One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin'sobverseside; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina twolictorsduring public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and theVestalis Maxima.[25]In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's allyMarcus Antonius Pallasfrom his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girlClaudia Acte—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence. "Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.[28]Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,[v]exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.[26]

Emperor Nero being instructed bySeneca,work by Spanish sculptorEduardo Barrón

Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.[29]

Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described asQuinquennium NeronisbyTrajan.[30][31]Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.[32]After the affair ofLucius Pedanius Secundus,who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.[33]

Residences

Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. AtSubiaco, Lazio,[34]near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa. He stayed at theVilla of NeroatOlympia, Greece,during his participation at theOlympic Gamesof AD 67.

Matricide

Coin of Nero andPoppaea SabinaBillon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. ΚΛΑΥ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒ. ΓΕΡ. ΑΥ. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠΟΠΠΑΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ. Year LI = 10 = 63–64.

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Romecautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood".[4]According toTacitus,the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair withPoppaea Sabina.InHistoriesTacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married toRufrius Crispinus,but in his later workAnnalsTacitus says Poppaea was married toOthowhen the affair began.[35]InAnnalsTacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wifeOctavia.Anthony A. Barrettwrites that Tacitus' account inAnnals"suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink".[36]A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62.[37][36]Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."[36]According toSuetonius,Nero had his former freedmanAnicetusarrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.[4][38]

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of theNile riversources with asuccessful expedition.[39]After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.[40]However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.[4]Miriam T. Griffinssuggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".[41][42]

He began to build a new palace, theDomus Transitoria,from about AD 60.[43]It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with thePalatineincluding theGardens of Maecenas,Horti Lamiani,Horti Lolliani,etc.[44][45]

In AD 62, Nero's adviserBurrusdied.[4]That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestastrial) against Antistius Sosianus.[46][47]He also executed his rivalsCornelius SullaandRubellius Plautus.[48]Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with theRoman Senate.Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."[49]

After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects:Faenius RufusandOfonius Tigellinus.Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.[50]According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[51]After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.[52][53]

In AD 64 during theSaturnalia,Nero marriedPythagoras,afreedman.[54][55][56][57][58]

Great Fire of Rome

Main article:Great Fire of Rome
The Fire of RomebyHubert Robert(1785)

The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of theAventineoverlooking theCircus Maximus,or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.[59][60]Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[59][61]The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.[62][63]

Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts byPliny the Elder,Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatialGolden House.[64]This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, theColossus of Nero,sited more or less where theColosseumwould eventually be built.[65][66][67]Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium"in stage costume while the city burned.[68][69][70]The popular legend that Nero played thelyrewhile Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct ofFlavianpropaganda... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule ".[71]

Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[72][73]After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.[72]

Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.[74]According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".[75]Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.[76]

Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced byporticoson wide roads.[77]Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as theDomus Aureain an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.[78]Particularly heavytributeswere imposed on the provinces of the empire.[79]To meet at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued theRoman currency,increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.[vi]

Later years

In AD 65,Gaius Calpurnius Piso,a Roman statesman, organized aconspiracy against Nerowith the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[80]According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore theRepublic.[81]The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary,Epaphroditus.[82]As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed, includingLucan,the poet.[83]Nero's previous advisorSenecawas accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide, as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.[84]

Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.[85]Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuousstate funeralanddivine honors,and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where.[86]

In AD 67, Nero marriedSporus,a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.[87][88]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68,Gaius Julius Vindex,the governor ofGallia Lugdunensis,rebelled against Nero's tax policies.[89][90]Lucius Verginius Rufus,the governor ofGermania Superior,was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[91]In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called uponServius Sulpicius Galba,the governor ofHispania Tarraconensis,to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[92]

A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of thePalatine.

At theBattle of Vesontioin May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.[91]However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.[93]

While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy".[92]The prefect of thePraetorian Guard,Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus,also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.[94]

In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port ofOstiaand, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line fromVirgil'sAeneid:"Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing toParthia,throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him theprefecture of Egypt".Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.[95]

Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for agladiatoror anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into theTiber.[95]

Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman,Phaon,offered his villa, located 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyalfreedmen,Epaphroditus,Phaon,Neophytus,andSporus,reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.[96]At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.[97]Nero prepared himself forsuicide,pacing up and down mutteringQualis artifex pereo( "What an artist the world is losing!" ). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.[98]

An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsulGaius Vibius Marianus.

When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!".[98]He died on 9 June 68,[vii]the anniversary of the death of his first wife,Claudia Octavia,and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now theVilla Borghese(Pincian Hill) area of Rome.[99]According toSulpicius Severus,it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.[100]

With his death, theJulio-Claudian dynastyended.[101]: 19 Chaos would ensue in theyear of the Four Emperors.[102]

After Nero

See also:Nero Redivivus legendandPseudo-Nero
Apotheosisof Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.[103][104]Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.[105]The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.[105]Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.[106]

Eastern sources, namelyPhilostratusandApollonius of Tyana,mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties ofHellaswith a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character ", and that he" held our liberties in his hand and respected them ".[107]Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to theirnostalgia".[108]

Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".[109]Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.[110]This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,[111]a practice known asdamnatio memoriae.Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[112]Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from theUnited Kingdom.[110][113]

The civil war during theyear of the Four Emperorswas described by ancient historians as a troubling period.[102]According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.[105]Galbabegan his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.[114]One such notable enemy includedNymphidius Sabinus,who claimed to be the son of EmperorCaligula.[115]

Othooverthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[116]It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[117]Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[117]Vitelliusoverthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[118]

After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[119]This belief came to be known as theNero Redivivus Legend.Thelegendof Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death.Augustine of Hippowrote of the legend as a popular belief in AD 422.[120]

At leastthree Nero impostorsemerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre, and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign of Vitellius.[121]After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.[121]Sometime during the reign ofTitus(79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.[122][123]Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign ofDomitian,there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,[104]and the matter almost came to war.[102]

Military conflicts

Aureusof Nero,c.AD 64
Aureus of Nero,c.AD 68

Boudica's uprising

Further information:Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59,Prasutagus,leader of theIcenitribe and aclient kingof Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving control of the Iceni to his daughters, was denied. When the RomanprocuratorCatus Decianusscourged Prasutagus' wifeBoudicaand raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the CelticTrinovantestribe andtheir uprisingbecame the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st century AD.[124][125]Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a substantial body ofRoman legioninfantry were eliminated. The governor of the province,Gaius Suetonius Paulinus,assembled his remaining forces anddefeated the Britons.Although order was restored for some time, Nero considered abandoning the province.[126]Julius Classicianusreplaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over.[127]Nero decided to adopt a more lenient approach by appointing a new governor,Petronius Turpilianus.[128]

Peace with Parthia

Further information:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63

Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after theParthiankingVologesesset his brotherTiridateson theArmenianthrone. Around AD 57 and AD 58Domitius Corbuloand his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capitalArtaxata.Tigraneswas chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attackedAdiabene,Nero had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia.

The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in AD 63 to discuss treaties. Givenimperiumover the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive hisdiademfrom Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you asMithras."Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero in the East including" The NewApollo"and" The New Sun ". After the coronation, friendly relations were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia.[129][130]

First Jewish War

Main article:First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.[131]In 67, Nero dispatchedVespasianto restore order.[132]This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[133]This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the SecondTemple of Jerusalem.[134]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played thecithara(a type oflyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class.[135]Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."[61]: 53 

In AD 67 Nero participated in theOlympics.He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate,[136]and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.[137]Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have been oblivious of reality."[61]: 54–55 

Nero established the Neronian games in AD 60. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of theCampus Martius.[61]: 288 

Historiography

Further information:Nero in the arts and popular culture

The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.[138]The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.[139]Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[140]A few of the contemporary historians are known by name.Fabius Rusticus,Cluvius RufusandPliny the Elderall wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[141]There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.[142]

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes fromTacitus,Suetonius,andCassius Dio,who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life, including the death ofClaudius,the death ofAgrippina,and the Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio(c. 155–229) was the son ofCassius Apronianus,a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator underCommodusand governor of Smyrna after the death ofSeptimius Severus;and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.[143]

Books 61–63 of Dio'sRoman Historydescribe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered byJohn Xiphilinus,an 11th-century monk.[citation needed]

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom(c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.[144]

Epictetus

Epictetus(c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.[145]He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.[146]

Josephus

The historianJosephus(c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

A circa 18th-century woodcut of the historianJosephus(c. 37–100), who accused other historians of slandering Nero.

But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.[147]

Lucan

Although more of a poet than a historian,Lucanus(c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero, in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.[148]

Philostratus

PhilostratusII, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), spoke of Nero in theLife of Apollonius Tyana(Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.[citation needed]

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero byPliny the Elder(c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny'sNatural Histories.Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind".[149]

Plutarch

Plutarch(c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species.[150]Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.

Seneca the Younger

It is not surprising thatSeneca(c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.[151]

Suetonius
Main article:Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius(c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, Nero raped thevestal virginRubria.[152]

Tacitus
Main article:Annals (Tacitus)

TheAnnalsbyTacitus(c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[153]

Tacitus was the son of aprocurator,who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[154]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562,Girolamo Cardanopublished in Basel hisEncomium Neronis,which was one of the first historical references of themodern erato portray Nero in a positive light.[155]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

AnAggadahin the Talmud says that at the end of AD 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews inJerusalemandCaesarea.According to theTalmud,during theGreat Jewish Revolt,Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance uponEdomby the hand of my people Israel "(Ezekiel 25:14).[156]Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted theSecond Templeto be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.[157]Vespasianwas then dispatched to put down the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sageReb Meir Baal HaNesslived in the time of theMishnah,and was a prominent supporter of theBar Kokhbarebellionagainst Roman rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of theTannaimof the third generation (139–163). According to the Talmud, he was a descendant of Nero, who had converted to Judaism.[158]His wifeBruriahis one of the few women cited in theGemara.He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah.[citation needed]

The Talmudic legend about Nero is not supported by contemporary sources. Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism.[159]There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child,Claudia Augusta,died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Nero's Torches,Henryk Siemiradzki

Tacitusdescribes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of AD 64.[76]Suetoniusalso mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire.[160]

Christian writerTertullian(c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine."[161]Lactantius(c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God,"[162]as didSulpicius Severus.[163]However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperorClaudius] expelled them from Rome "("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").[164]These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, callingAquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla,both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).[165]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The first text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter byClementto the Corinthians traditionally dated to around AD 96.[166]The apocryphalAscension of Isaiah,a Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which theTwelve Apostlesof the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands "; this is interpreted as referring to Nero.[167]

BishopEusebiusofCaesarea(c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero.[168]He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the first century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling toHispania,before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death.[169]

Peter is first said to have been crucifiedspecifically upside-downin Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in theapocryphalActs of Peter(c. 200).[170]The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.

By the fourth century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.[162][171]

Antichrist

Main articles:Antichrist,The Beast (Revelation),Number of the beast,andNero Redivivus legend

TheSibylline Oracles,Book 5 and 8, written in the second century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.[172][173]Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,[174]fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310,Lactantiuswrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.[162][175]

In 422,Augustine of Hippowrote about2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,'[176]he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist. "[120]

Some modern biblical scholars[177][178]such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of theAmerican Schools of Oriental Researchand the editors of theOxford Study BibleandHarperCollins Study Bible,contend that the number666in theBook of Revelationis a code for Nero,[179]a view that is also supported inRoman CatholicBiblical commentaries.[180][181]The statement concerns Revelation 17:1-18, "the longest explanatory passage in Revelation",[182]which predicts the destruction of Rome by work of an "eighth emperor" who was also one of the "seven kings" of the most extended and powerful empire ever known in the human history: according to this lecture, Babylon the Great is identified with Rome[183]which has poured the blood of saints and martyrs (verse 6) and subsequently become the seat of the Vatican State, reigning over all the kings existing on Earth.

See also

Notes

  1. ^Tacitus wrote the following about Agrippina's marriage to Claudius: "From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman—and not a woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs. This was a rigorous, almost masculine, despotism. In public, Agrippina was austere and often arrogant. Her private life was chaste—unless power was to be gained. Her passion to acquire money was unbounded; she wanted it as a stepping stone to supremacy."[8]
  2. ^The date is recorded in theActa Arvalia[9]and the year was "in the consulate ofGaius AntistiusandMarcus Suillius".[10]Suetoniusstates that Nero was "in the eleventh year of his age", which is most likely a mistake.[11]
  3. ^For further information seeadoption in Rome.
  4. ^Suetonius wrote "That Claudius was poisoned is the general belief, but when it was done and by whom is disputed. Some say that it was his taster, the eunuch Halotus, as he was banqueting on the Citadel with the priests; others that at a family dinner Agrippina served the drug to him with her own hand in mushrooms, a dish of which he was extravagantly fond.. His death was kept quiet until all the arrangements were made about the succession."[17]
  5. ^Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).
  6. ^Nero or his moneyers reduced the weight of thedenariusfrom 84 perRoman poundto 96 (3.80 grams to 3.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3.80 grams to 2.97 grams. He also reduced the weight of theaureusfrom 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7.9 grams to 7.2 grams).Tulane Universityhand-out,archived.[better source needed]
  7. ^Cassius Dio66.4:"from the death of Nero to the beginning of Vespasian's rule a year and twenty-two days elapsed". Vespasian's reign officially began on 1 July (Suetonius,Vespasian6), which places the death on 9 June. Furthermore,Epiphanius'On Weights and Measures(III) gives a reign length of "thirteen years and seven months and twenty-seven days".Jerome(2070) gives "13 years, 7 months and 28 days" (usinginclusive counting).

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  163. ^"Sulpicius Severus: Chronicles II".thelatinlibrary.
  164. ^Suetonius,Life of Claudius 25Archived30 June 2012 atarchive.today
  165. ^Acts of the Apostles 18:2
  166. ^Champlin,p. 123
  167. ^"The Ascension of Isaiah".earlychristianwritings.
  168. ^Eusebius,Ecclesiastical HistoryII.25.5Archived13 December 2006 at theWayback Machine
  169. ^In theapocryphal Acts of Paul(archive); in theapocryphal Acts of Peter(archive); in theFirst Epistle of Clement 5:6) (archive;and inThe Muratorian Fragment(archive)
  170. ^"The Acts of Peter".earlychristianwritings.
  171. ^John Chrysostomwrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom,Concerning Lowliness of Mind4Archived3 July 2007 at theWayback Machine;Sulpicius Severussays Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus,ChronicaII.28–29
  172. ^"The Sibylline Oracles 5.361–76, 8.68–72, 8.531–157".sacred-texts.
  173. ^Griffin 2002,p. 15.
  174. ^Sulpicius SeverusandVictorinus of Pettaualso say that Nero is the Antichrist,Sulpicius Severus,ChronicaII.28–29;Victorinus of Pettau,Commentary on the Apocalypse17Archived6 February 2007 at theWayback Machine
  175. ^Champlin,p. 20
  176. ^"2 Thessalonians 2:7 – Passage Lookup – King James Version".BibleGateway.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2008.Retrieved9 November2010.
  177. ^Cory, Catherine A. (2006).The Book of Revelation.Liturgical Press. pp. 61–.ISBN978-0-8146-2885-0.Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2016.Retrieved27 December2015.
  178. ^Garrow, A.J.P. (2002).Revelation.Taylor & Francis. pp. 86–.ISBN978-0-203-13308-8.Archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2016.Retrieved27 December2015.
  179. ^Hillers, Delbert (1963). "Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba'at".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.170(170): 65.doi:10.2307/1355990.JSTOR1355990.S2CID163790686.
  180. ^Brown, Raymond E.; Fitzmyer, Joseph A. and Murphy, Roland E. eds. (1990).The New Jerome Biblical Commentary.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 1009.ISBN978-0136149347
  181. ^Just, S.J."The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements,University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community ".Archivedfrom the original on 1 June 2007.Retrieved18 May2007.
  182. ^Revelation 17:1–18
  183. ^Sinclair, Scott Gambrill (2016)."The Book of Revelation (Course Lecture Notes)"(PDF).The Scott Sinclair Lecture Notes Collection(2). Dominican University of California: 36–37.doi:10.33015/dominican.edu/2016.sinclair.02.Nero persecuted the church at Rome, and the Beast whose number is 666 probably represents him. [...] Revelation also draws many parallels between "Babylon" (Rome) and the New Jerusalem. [...] In John's social situation the emperor did appear to be the Almighty, and Rome did appear to be the Heavenly City(attributed to thepublic domain)

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Nero
Born:15 December 37Died:9 June 68
Political offices
Preceded by Roman emperor
54–68 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
M. Aefulanus,
andignotus
as suffect consuls 		Roman consul
55
withL. Antistius Vetus 		Succeeded byas suffect consul
Preceded byas suffect consuls Roman consul
57–58
withL. Calpurnius Piso(57)
M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus(58) 		Succeeded byas suffect consul
Preceded byas suffect consuls Roman consul
60
withCossus Cornelius Lentulus 		Succeeded byas suffect consuls
Preceded byas ordinary consuls Roman consul
68 (suffect)
sine collega 		Succeeded byas suffect consuls
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